Next Article in Journal
Ethyl Methane Sulfonate and Sodium Azide-Mediated Chemical and X-ray-Mediated Physical Mutagenesis Positively Regulate Peroxidase 1 Gene Activity and Biosynthesis of Antineoplastic Vinblastine in Catharanthus roseus
Next Article in Special Issue
SPL12 Regulates AGL6 and AGL21 to Modulate Nodulation and Root Regeneration under Osmotic Stress and Nitrate Sufficiency Conditions in Medicago sativa
Previous Article in Journal
Seed Weight and Trade-Offs: An Experiment in False Rhodes Grasses under Different Aridity Conditions
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 11
Issue 21
10.3390/plants11212888
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Expression and Variation of the Genes Involved in Rhizobium Nodulation in Red Clover

by
Randy D. Dinkins
1,*,
Julie A. Hancock
2,
Derek M. Bickhart
3,
Michael L. Sullivan
3 and
Hongyan Zhu
4
1
Forage-Animal Production Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
2
College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40508, USA
3
US Dairy Forage Research Center, USDA-ARS, Madison, WI 53706, USA
4
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2022, 11(21), 2888; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212888
Submission received: 21 September 2022 / Revised: 21 October 2022 / Accepted: 25 October 2022 / Published: 28 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Improvement of Forage Crop Species)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is an important forage crop and serves as a major contributor of nitrogen input in pasture settings because of its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. During the legume-rhizobial symbiosis, the host plant undergoes a large number of gene expression changes, leading to development of root nodules that house the rhizobium bacteria as they are converted into nitrogen-fixing bacteroids. Many of the genes involved in symbiosis are conserved across legume species, while others are species-specific with little or no homology across species and likely regulate the specific plant genotype/symbiont strain interactions. Red clover has not been widely used for studying symbiotic nitrogen fixation, primarily due to its outcrossing nature, making genetic analysis rather complicated. With the addition of recent annotated genomic resources and use of RNA-seq tools, we annotated and characterized a number of genes that are expressed only in nodule forming roots. These genes include those encoding nodule-specific cysteine rich peptides (NCRs) and nodule-specific Polycystin-1, Lipoxygenase, Alpha toxic (PLAT) domain proteins (NPDs). Our results show that red clover encodes one of the highest number of NCRs and ATS3-like/NPDs, which are postulated to increase nitrogen fixation efficiency, in the Inverted-Repeat Lacking Clade (IRLC) of legumes. Knowledge of the variation and expression of these genes in red clover will provide more insights into the function of these genes in regulating legume-rhizobial symbiosis and aid in breeding of red clover genotypes with increased nitrogen fixation efficiency.

1. Introduction

The root nodule symbiosis between legumes and nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria is vital for the supply of biologically fixed nitrogen to soil and plants in agricultural systems. Development of nitrogen-fixing nodules involves simultaneous differentiation of both symbiotic partners. During this process, the bacteria become adjusted to an endosymbiotic lifestyle and develop into mature bacteroids that are capable of nitrogen fixation. Depending on the host, the morphology and physiology of bacteroids can be strikingly different. In phaseoloid legumes (e.g., soybeans and common beans), the bacteroids mostly retain the same morphology and can revert to the free-living form. In contrast, galegoid legumes (e.g., alfalfa, clovers, and peas), the bacteria often undergo terminal differentiation, which is characterized by cell enlargement coupled with genome amplification, increased membrane permeability, and loss of reproductive ability [1,2]. It was reported that terminal differentiation may lead to more efficient nitrogen fixation compared to non-terminal differentiation [3]. The terminal differentiation of bacteroids in Medicago and related legumes is associated with the expression of nodule-specific peptides that are targeted to bacteroids in the symbiosome, which include nodule-specific cysteine-rich peptides (NCRs) [4], proline-rich peptides (PRPs) [5], calmodulin-like proteins (CaMLs) [6], glycine-rich proteins (GRPs) [7], LEED..PEED signature proteins (LPs) [8], and nodule-specific PLAT (Polycystin-1, Lipoxygenase, Alpha-Toxin) domain proteins (NPDs) [9,10]. Some of these peptides are essential for development of high-efficiency nitrogen-fixing nodules [4,11], while others are toxic to specific bacterial strains and thus lead to the development of nodules incapable of fixing nitrogen [11,12]. Some of these peptides appear to be species-specific, such as the LPs that have only been identified in Medicago to date [8], whereas others appear to be widespread yet have very little sequence homology between species and highly differentially expanded in the different species [13]. An example of the latter are the NCR peptides that are only present in inverted-repeat lacking chloroplast (IRLC) galegoid legumes and absent in phaseoloid legumes. It has been proposed that these peptides optimize nitrogen fixation performance as different legume species contain similar, but different, sets of NCR gene products that target different rhizobial species [14,15].
Clovers and other forage legumes are commonly utilized in pastures as they offer an opportunity to reduce nitrogen fertilizer use when inter-seeded with forage grasses [16]. Perennial clovers in a dense grass-clover pasture can contribute more than 200 kg nitrogen per ha/year to the cropping system [17]. Red clover is an ideal legume pasture choice for many areas of the world in that it tolerates soil acidity and poor drainage and is well suited for hay production and to grazing when inter-seeded with common forage-grasses [18,19]. Molecular work on red clover has lagged behind many other cultivated crop species despite its relatively small genome [20], primarily due to the fact that it is an outcrossing species making genetic gains more difficult [21]. Genomic resources have been developed that now allow for molecular characterization and analysis [22,23,24,25,26]. The high heterozygosity in red clover, while complicating the assembly of contiguous chromosome molecules, has allowed for the identification of chromosomal regions and genes involved in various functions using single nucleotide polymorphic loci (SNPs) mapping [26,27,28,29,30], including identification of red clover genotypes differing in their nitrogen fixation potential [31]. However, still lacking is information on the molecular response and interaction of red clover with rhizobium that has been primarily done on model legumes such as soybeans (Glycine max), Lotus japonicus, and Medicago truncatula. For example, it has been postulated that red clover encodes roughly 425 NCRs, suggesting that this species contains one of the higher number of these peptides [9], although there is no information on the expression of the genes encoding these peptides in red clover due to the lack of annotation of the genes in the databases. Thus, the goal of the current work was to identify, and monitor expression of, genes in the interaction of red clover plants with rhizobium by comparing gene expression in roots of inoculated with uninoculated plants.

2. Results and Discussion

In order to characterize the red clover genes associated with nodulation, analysis was done on roots where plants were inoculated (Nod+) to those that were not inoculated (Nod−). The plants for the current experiment were derived from the Kenland variety and from crosses derived from a putative ifs1 mutant generated by CRISPR/Cas9 [32]. As the knock-down of the TpIFS1 gene had no effect on nodulation, and gene expression analysis revealed no interaction between nodulation and the IFS1 knockdown (see Figure 5 in Dinkins et al. [32]), comparisons of differential gene expression between the Nod+ and Nod− roots were done across both WT and ifs1/ifs1 genotypes (Figure 1a—dendrogram). Of the 43,827 red clover gene models annotated in the ARS1 genome assembly, 32,285 genes had at least one mapped read from the root-derived mRNA. For the current study, a minimum of five reads was used as a cutoff for comparisons between the Nod+ and Nod− root samples, resulting in the root transcriptome for the current analysis of 26,128 red clover gene models. Furthermore, for the statistical analysis of differential expression based on the four replicates (individual plants) for each Nod+ and Nod− RNA sample, the criteria used for designating significant differential expression between the Nod+ and Nod− roots was greater than two-fold expression difference, and −log10 p-value of 2.12 (corresponding to p-value of 0.003 and based on an FDR p-value 0.1). Using the above criteria, 1474 red clover genes were differentially expressed (DEGs) between the Nod+ and Nod− roots (Figure 1b—volcano plot). Of these, 512 genes were down-regulated in Nod+ roots and 962 genes were up-regulated in Nod+ roots (Supplementary Materials, Table S1). Of the 962 DEGs showing enhanced expression in Nod+ roots, 398 were associated with the nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) peptides and cysteine-rich defensin peptides (described in more detail below). The ten most highly expressed genes in the Nod+ root samples include those encoding four leghemoglobin Lb120-1 homologues, two nodulin-25 like proteins, an early nodulin-75-like protein, a nodulin-specific embryo expressed 3-like protein, a nodule-specific glycine-rich protein and a putative NMS32/34 nodulin-specific protein (Table 1). The high expression of these genes is similar to results of the most highly expressed genes found during nodulation in Medicago species (Burghardt et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2022). The expression of these genes were also some of the most highly differentially expressed genes when comparing the Nod+ and Nod− root samples (i.e., no or very low expression in Nod− roots), confirming that the high expression is due to the presence of the nodules in these samples. The list of Nod+ greater than Nod− DEGs is presented in the supplemental file (Supplementary Materials, Table S2).
Here, we highlight an example of genes or gene families that were differentially expressed between the Nod+ and Nod− roots, with a focus on the genes that are up-regulated by nodulation.

2.1. Up-Regulated Genes by Nodulation

2.1.1. NOD25 and N22

NOD25 orthologs in Medicago truncatula (MtNOD25), Medicago sativa (MsNOD25) and Vicia faba (VfNOD28/32) are expressed only in root nodules and encode a nodule-specific protein designated nodulin-25. Nodulin-25 homologs consist of different repetitive modules that are highly diverged between legume species but the N-terminal signal peptide (SP) and the C-terminus are highly conserved. The N-terminal SP is required and sufficient to target the protein to the. symbiosome of infected root nodule cells but its function in symbiosis development remains unknown [33]. In red clover, we identified two NOD25 loci on chromosome 3 in the current genome assembly but they most likely represent two allelic (haplotype) versions of the same gene. Nevertheless, there are over twenty-five different putative nodulin-25 protein isoforms predicted via alternative splicing from the two NOD25 genes. The two NOD25 genes had very high expression in the Nod+ roots but no expression was detected in Nod− roots. The RNA-seq data support most, although not all, of the different splicing mRNA products (Figure S1), suggesting that these might be expressed at different stages during the symbiosome development not observed in the current study, or that these predicted alternative splicing products may not occur in these plants.
The NOD25 locus is highly syntenic in galegoid legumes. Immediately adjacent to the NOD25 gene is another nodule-specific gene called MtN22 in M. truncatula and NMS32/34 in M. sativa. In red clover, the MtN22 ortholog appears to be duplicated; there are three copies in one putative haplotype (Tp3g123916883, Tp3g123916884, and Tp3g123916889) and two copies (Tp3g123918940 and Tp3g123918941) in another. All the five genes were expressed only in the Nod+ roots (Table 1). Tp3g123916883, Tp3g123918940 and Tp3g123918941 are postulated to produce three protein isoforms each via differential splicing (Figure S2). From the RNA-seq data, it is difficult to differentiate differential splicing due to sequence similarities that results in similar protein products (Figures S3 and S4). MtN22 also produces three putative protein isoforms and has the highest similarity to the red clover Tp3g123918940. Interestingly, the only other MtN22-like protein that is currently predicted in other species are in Cicer arietinum where three genes are found. In all probability, this lack of the matches to other legumes, such as to the Viciaea, may be due to the lack of gene information at this time.

2.1.2. NCRs

Of the 962 DEGs up-regulated in the Nod+ roots, 393 encode the nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) peptides. Many of the NCR genes in the AR-100 genome assembly were annotated as non-coding RNA (ncRNA) genes. Thus, we manually re-annotated the genes based on known conserved NCR sequences and gene structure. Specifically, these genes were identified by the presence of two (or sometimes three) exons, where the first exon primarily encodes the signal peptide and the second exon codes the mature peptide containing four or six cysteine residues as described further below. Where a ncRNA locus was associated with the NCR gene, the locus number was maintained, however in instances where no locus was identified, we manually annotated according to chromosome number and start location of the gene on the chromosome (Supplementary Materials, Table S3). Expression of the NCR genes varied in the Nod+ roots, but essentially no expression was observed in the uninoculated root samples (Supplementary Materials, Table S3).
The distinguishing feature of these small peptides are the 4–6 conserved cysteine residues [15]. The four cysteine peptides were conserved C-(X4)-DC-(X11-17)-C-(X4)-C, the six cysteine peptides were conserved C-(X3-6)-C-(X4-7)-C-(X4-7)-C-(X4-17)-C-(X1)-C (Supplementary Materials Figure S5A,B). The similarity of the C-terminal CXC motif of the six-cysteine group with the cys-defensin family of proteins suggests that disulphide bridging is a component of the protein conformation for mode of action as an antimicrobial peptide.
A total of 460 putative NCR genes were identified in the assembly of which 425 were expressed in the current study. Genome location and expression of the putative NCR genes are listed in Supplemental File (Supplementary Materials, Table S3). The predominant gene structure of the NCR genes in red clover was two exons interrupted by an intron near the signal peptide cleavage site. However, 32 genes also contain a second intron at the 3′ end that included one to a few codons prior the stop codon. The inclusion of the third exon was annotated with the aid of 3′ Tag-sequencing data [34]. There were a few (18) that appear to be intronless. A predicted signal peptide was found for 425 putative NCR peptides using the SignalP 4.1 software in CLC Genomics Workbench, while the remaining 34 did not have a predicted signal peptide but had the conserved cysteine amino acids and are included as they were expressed in the current study.
The distribution of the number of NCR peptides based on the isoelectric point ranges is presented in Figure 2. It has been suggested that cationic peptides, those with the isoelectric point above 9.0, can function as antimicrobial peptides [15,35,36] of which the MtNCR247 has been specifically shown to be a strong antimicrobial peptide [35]. There are 149 expressed cationic NCR peptides in red clover which represents 32% of the red clover NCR peptides, while M. truncatula proportion is roughly 15%, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is currently postulated to have 10%, and sweet clover (Melilotus offiicinalis) and pea (Pisum sativum), 9% and 8.5%, respectively. Interestingly, red clover only has a single anionic NCR with an isoelectric point less than 4.0, whereas the other species above contain roughly 6%.
There are 25 genes that encode proteins containing eight, or more, cysteine residues. These are not listed as NCR genes and likely encode putative defensins [37,38]. Nevertheless, these genes are also observed to be primarily expressed in the Nod+ roots, have an N-terminal signal peptide, and thus likely targeted to the symbiosome.

2.1.3. ATS3-like/NPDs

Also observed in the highest expressed Nod+ gene list (Table 1) is a gene encoding a class of cysteine-rich peptides with homology to the Arabidopsis thaliana embryo-specific protein-3, or ATS3-like. In M. truncatula the nodule-specific ATS3-like genes are comprised of five closely related members (Figure S6), encoding proteins that have been named as nodule-specific Polycystin-1, Lipoxygenase, Alpha toxic (PLAT) domain proteins, or NPD’s [9]. In red clover this gene family has expanded to 12 genes that are all tightly linked on chromosome 7 (Supplementary Figure S6). All of the red clover ATS3-like/NPD genes were expressed only in the Nod+ roots, most at high levels, including the TpNPD5 (Tp7g123899073) that was one of the most highly expressed genes in this study (Table 1). Analysis using SignalP 4.1 software suggests that these proteins are cleaved and most likely targeted to the symbiosome as previously found for MtNPD1 [10]. The TpNPD7 gene, while actively transcribed, probably encodes a non-function protein in the sequenced cultivar as it lacks a motif encoded by exon 2 and a small deletion in the C-terminus (Supplementary Materials Figure S7). Additionally, the TpNDP9 locus, while also apparently transcribed, may be a pseudogene as the third exon is not proximal to the first two, although RNA-seq expression data suggests possible inclusion of the exon 3 sequence shared with TpNPD12 (Supplementary Materials Figure S6). TpNPD12 appears to encode two protein isoforms with a two amino acid difference due to alternative splicing in exon 2, both supported in the RNA-seq mapping results. The rationale for the expansion of this gene family in red clover is not known. In M. truncatula it appears that these proteins may function in the selection for, or against, different strains of rhizobium [10,39], and thus it will be of interest to characterize this gene family in red clover as to whether it could aid in identifying better interacting R. leguminosarum strains with different red clover genotypes.

2.1.4. NAD1/NIN

Other genes involved in early nodulation include NODULES WITH ACTIVATED DEFENSE 1 (NAD1) and NODULE INCEPTION (NIN). MtNAD1 is essential for the control of plant defense during the colonization of the nitrogen-fixing nodule and is required for bacteroid persistence. NIN orthologs are required to initiate nodule formation in the cortex [40] and to transcriptionally activate NF-YA1 (Nuclear Factor Y), a transcription factor [41,42] involved in various nodulation steps [41,43,44]. In the epidermis, NIN is necessary for the onset of rhizobium infection [45,46] but restricts the expression of EARLY NODULIN11 (ENOD11), a marker of the pre- infection and infection steps [47,48]. In red clover, the putative orthologs of NAD1 (Tp6g23891533) and NIN (Tp4g123881749) both were up-regulated in the Nod+ roots. The TpNIN promoter region has the same upstream elements that regulate transcription as described for MtNIN, suggesting that regulation is probably similar [49].
The MtNF-YA1 that controls meristem function is repressed in nodules through interaction with miR169, which is mediated by a small 62-aa peptide encoded by an alternatively spliced 5′-end of the MtNF-YA1 gene that reduces expression [50]. The putative NF-YA1 ortholog in red clover (Tp1g123902956) was expressed as a significant DEG in the current study. Additionally, the alternative splicing of the first intron seen in MtNF-YA1 was also observed in TpNF-YA1, suggesting a conserved regulation mechanism via miRNA169 [51].

2.1.5. DNF1-like and SYP132

Other components of the secretory pathway that are targeted to the symbiosome in M. truncatula include components of the signal peptidase complex (SPC) that include dnf1 (defective in nitrogen fixation 1). Putative red clover genes that could encode putative orthologues of dnf1 are: Tp6g123890890, Tp6g123917546 or Tp1g123900039. None of the three genes were observed to be expressed only in the Nod+ roots, although Tp6g123917546 was observed to have a two-fold increase in expression in the Nod+ roots, although not declared significantly different. No expression differences between the Nod+ and Nod− roots were observed in the other putative orthologues of the other subunits to the signal peptidase complex (DAS12, DAS18 and DAS25) [52].
Another protein involved in the transport and protein targeting to the symbiosome is SYNTAXIN 132 (SYP132). In M. truncatula, the SYP132 gene encodes two isoforms that distinguish host plasma membrane and symbiosome membrane via alternative splicing and polyadenylation [53,54]. While no significant differences in overall gene expression of the putative red clover SYP132 (Tp7g123897430) between Nod+ and Nod− roots was observed, only reads from Nod+ root samples mapped to the alternative spliced isoform suggesting that Tp7g123897430 gene is the red clover SYP132 ortholog. Complicating the analysis of the putative TpSYP132 gene is the presence of an overlapping gene (Tp7g123897432) at the 3′ end with the alternatively spliced isoform (Figure S8). The Tp7g123897432 gene is currently labeled as a ncRNA gene and is expressed in both Nod+ and Nod− roots. RNA-seq data suggests that this (Tp7g123897432) gene also produces alternative spliced mRNA isoforms but, as the ncRNA designations suggests, no open reading frames have been found. Additional analysis will be necessary to determine the function of this ncRNA and whether there might be any involvement in regulation of the red clover SYP132 gene as suggested for M. truncatula [55].

2.1.6. Transcription Factor-Encoding Genes

One of the most highly expressed transcription factor-encoding genes was Tp6g123889481 that encodes a C2H2 zinc finger protein that is orthologous to the M. truncatula REGULATION OF SYMBIOSOME DEVELOPMENT (RSD) [56]. Another Nod+-specific C2H2 zinc finger gene, Tp6g123890030 is orthologous MtrunA17_Chr7g0231181, which is also expressed only in nodules in M. truncatula [57]. The role of this putative C2H2 LOC123890030 gene product in nodulation is still unknown.

2.2. Down-Regulated Genes by Nodulation

A list of DEGs that were down-regulated in the Nod+ roots is presented in Excel file S1. These include a number of genes involved in pathogen response and biosynthesis of terpenoids (Table 2). This is consistent with the observations that the immune responses were suppressed during the symbiosis development and maintenance. Gene Ontology, Biological Process, Molecular Function and Cellular Component terms associated with these down-regulated genes are presented in Table 3. Expression of genes with molecular function GO:0016705 (oxidoreductase activity) was associated with a number of cytochrome P450′s. These genes are likely involved in terpenoid biosynthesis as previously highlighted as highly differentially expressed.
While not highlighted in the GO pathways, Tp4g123921773, a gene encoding a protein with homology to the LysM/CERK Nod Factor Receptors from Lotus japonicus (NFR5), soybeans (NFRa and NFRb) and pea (SYM37A) was also significantly down-regulated in the Nod− roots (Table 2). Other putative LysM/CERK homologs, Tp4g123921715 and Tp2g123904164, showed a similar expression pattern. While these gene products have been shown to be the receptors for rhizobium and determinants that specify species-specific plant-rhizobium interactions [58] and it has not been demonstrated that these loci are the specific receptors in the interactions of red clover and rhizobia. Down-regulation of these genes in Nod+ roots may also be associated with suppression of immune responses because LysM-domain containing receptors also serve as immune receptors that perceive common microbe-associated molecular patterns such as chitin to trigger immunity signaling [59].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Plant Growth

Seeds of the Kenland cultivar and from crosses derived from a putative isoflavone synthase 1 or ifs1 mutant [32] were germinated on sterile moist filter paper and the germinated seedlings were individually transferred to 5-cm pots containing autoclaved sand. Seedlings were grown for two weeks in a growth chamber programmed for 16 h light at 22 °C and 8 h dark at 20 °C. The plants were then inoculated with a commercial strain of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii sold as N-DureTM True Clover (Verdesian, Cary, NC, USA). The un-inoculated plants were used as controls. Water was applied twice daily using an overhead sprinkler system for six weeks. Following six weeks of growth, the nodulated roots (including both nodules and roots, designated as Nod+) and uninoculated roots (Nod−) were collected for transcriptome analysis.

3.2. RNA Extraction and Library Preparation

RNA was isolated and processed according to methods described in Dinkins et al. [32] and the frozen total RNA samples were submitted to NovoGene (Seattle, WA, USA) for the construction of 150-base paired-end mRNA libraries and subsequent sequencing following the manufacture procedures (https://en.novogene.com/services/research-services/transcriptome-sequencing/eukaryote-mrna-sequencing/, accessed on November 28 2019). Sequencing was done using Illumina Hi-Seq sequencing, resulting in a minimum 6 GB of sequence data per library. The raw RNA-seq reads have been deposited in the Short Read Archive database at NCBI under BioProject PRJNA657870.

3.3. Analysis of RNA-Seq Reads

Raw reads were filtered to remove reads less than 30 bases and then mapped to the red clover genome assembly (version ARS_RC1.1; GenBank Accession No. GCA_020283565.1) [25] using the RNA-Seq tool, CLC Genomics Workbench (v22.0; CLC Genomics Workbench, Qiagen Aarhus A/S, Denmark). Minimum length fraction was set to 0.5 and minimum similarity fraction set to 0.8. Reads mapped to each gene were transformed by addition of one (1) to eliminate zeros and normalized by the Quantile method in CLC Genomics Workbench. Only genes that had a minimum of five average reads over either the Nod+ or Nod− samples were retained for differential expression analysis.
Manual annotation was performed for some of red clover genes based on the RNA-seq exon/intron expression profiles. This included manual annotation of the red clover NCR genes, many of which were annotated as ncRNAs in the current assembly, in order to identify the open reading frames. Thus we manually re-annotated the genes based on known conserved NCR gene structure and from sequences obtained from genes derived using the SPADA software [60] in the red clover genome assembly Tpv2.1 (GenBank Accession No. GCA_900079335.1). Following re-annotation, the RNA-seq tool in CLC Workbench was re-run to obtain the corrected read expression data. The SignalP 4.1 software in CLC Genomics Workbench [61,62] was used to predict the signal peptide cleavage site.
For differential expression analysis, the transformed read number in each sample was analyzed using JMP Genomics (version 9.0—SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). The normalized reads for each sample were log transformed (log2) using the JMP Basic RNA-Seq Workflow analysis of variance (ANOVA). Comparisons were done between Nod+ and Nod− samples over four replications (samples from four plants each). Based on the error estimated by ANOVA for each gene-by-gene comparison, significant differential expression was calculated in the comparisons between the IFS1 wild-type and ifs1 mutant expression means. A false discovery rate (FDR) multiple testing method at -log10 p-value of 2, that corresponds to an FDR p-value of 0.1, and a 2-fold difference were chosen as criteria for significance.
Pathway analysis of the differentially expressed genes was done using the annotation and gene ontology term from the Trifolium pratense Gene Ontology list in Legume Information Service (https://legumeinfo.org, accessed on 7 September 2021) using the web-based AgriGOv2 (http://systemsbiology.cau.edu.cn/agriGOv2/, accessed on 25 July 2022) [63].

4. Conclusions

Red clover has not been a major contributor in legume/rhizobium studies primarily due to the issues associated with self-incompatibility and difficulties obtaining homozygous plants for genetic analysis compared to the model species currently used. Using recently developed red clover genomic resources and RNA-seq expression analysis, we describe the genes that are expressed in nodule forming roots. As has been observed for other species, for red clover many of the genes involved in symbiosis are conserved with those of other legumes, while other genes are plant species-specific with little or no homology across species. These include the nodule-specific cysteine rich proteins (NCRs) that are found only in the IRLC legume clade, that while have common features, i.e., conserved cysteine residues, lack sequence homology and likely regulate the specific plant genotype/symbiont strain interactions. With the knowledge of the expression of these genes and genetic variation in red clover, breeding for increased nitrogen fixation efficiency by selection of genotypes with increased rhizobium specificity should be feasible.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants11212888/s1, Figure S1. Mapped reads from Nod+ and Nod− red clover plants to putative Nod25-like genes on Chromosome 3. (A) Tp3g123916815; (B) Tp3g123918937; Figure S2. Gene structure and overall expression of the red clover NMS32/34-like genes. (A) NMS32/34-like Tp3g123916883; (B) NMS32/34-like Tp3g123916884 and Tp3g123916889; (C) NMS32/34-like Tp3g123918940; (D) NMS32/34-like Tp3g123918941; Figure S3. Sequence alignment of the different mRNA isoforms encoding the red clover TP NMS32/34-like protein isoforms. Figure S4. Protein Sequence alignment of the red clover NMS32/34- like gene products. Figure S5. (A) Sequence alignment of red clover nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) mature peptides that contain four conserved cysteine residues. Figure S5. (B) Sequence alignment of a few of the red clover nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) mature peptides that contain six conserved cysteine residues. Figure S6. Location of the red clover embryo-specific ATS3-like/Nodule-specific PLAF domain (NPD) gene on Linkage Group 7 and mapped reads from the Nod+ and Nod− root samples. Figure S7. Protein sequence alignment of the red clover, Medicago truncatula and Arabidopsis embryo-specific ATS3-like/Nodule-specific PLAF domain (NPD) proteins. Figure S8. Chromosome location, expression and alternate splicing of the red clover putative SYP132 (Tp7g123897430) and ncRNA locus (Tp7g123897432). Supplemental Excel file: Excel Table S1: List of differentially expressed genes Nod− > Nod+. Excel Table S2: List of differentially expressed genes Nod+ > Nod−. Excel Table S3: List of red clover nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) peptides.

Author Contributions

R.D.D. planned the experiment, analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. J.A.H. performed the experiments and analyzed the data; D.M.B. and M.L.S. provided genomic data; and H.Z. co-planned the experiment and co-wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the United States Department of Agriculture USDA—ARS CRIS project 5042-21000-002-00D and Non-Assistance Cooperative Agreement 5850428003 (H.Z.).

Data Availability Statement

The raw RNA-seq reads are deposited in the Short Read Archive database at GenBank under BioProject PRJNA657870.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Troy Bass for technical support with the greenhouse plant maintenance, and with DNA and RNA isolations; and to Diana Trujillo and Nevin Young for sharing their red clover genomic information.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no competing interest.

Disclaimer Note

Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

References

  1. Kereszt, A.; Mergaert, P.; Kondorosi, E. Bacteroid development in legume nodules: Evolution of mutual benefit or of sacrificial victims? Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2011, 24, 1300–1309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Haag, A.F.; Arnold, M.F.; Myka, K.K.; Kerscher, B.; Dall’Angelo, S.; Zanda, M.; Mergaert, P.; Ferguson, G.P. Molecular insights into bacteroid development during Rhizobium–legume symbiosis. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2013, 37, 364–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Oono, R.; Denison, R.F. Comparing Symbiotic Efficiency between Swollen versus Nonswollen Rhizobial Bacteroids. Plant Physiol. 2010, 154, 1541–1548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Van de Velde, W.; Zehirov, G.; Szatmari, A.; Debreczeny, M.; Ishihara, H.; Kevei, Z.; Farkas, A.; Mikulass, K.; Nagy, A.; Tiricz, H.; et al. Plant peptides govern terminal differentiation of bacteria in symbiosis. Science 2010, 327, 1122–1126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Wilson, R.C.; Long, F.; Maruoka, E.M.; Cooper, J.B. A new proline-rich early nodulin from Medicago truncatula is highly expressed in nodule meristematic cells. Plant Cell 1994, 6, 1265–1275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Liu, J.; Miller, S.S.; Graham, M.; Bucciarelli, B.; Catalano, C.M.; Sherrier, D.J.; Samac, D.A.; Ivashuta, S.; Fedorova, M.; Matsumoto, P.; et al. Recruitment of Novel Calcium-Binding Proteins for Root Nodule Symbiosis in Medicago truncatula. Plant Physiol. 2006, 141, 167–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Kevei, Z.; Vinardell, J.M.; Kiss, G.B.; Kondorosi, A.; Kondorosi, E. Glycine-Rich Proteins Encoded by a Nodule-Specific Gene Family Are Implicated in Different Stages of Symbiotic Nodule Development in Medicago spp. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2002, 15, 922–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  8. Trujillo, D.I.; Silverstein, K.A.T.; Young, N.D. Genomic Characterization of the LEED..PEEDs, a Gene Family Unique to the Medicago Lineage. G3 Genes|Genomes|Genet. 2014, 4, 2003–2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  9. Trujillo, D.I.; Silverstein, K.A.T.; Young, N.D. Nodule-specific PLAT domain proteins are expanded in the Medicago lineage and required for nodulation. New Phytol. 2019, 222, 1538–1550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Pislariu, C.I.; Sinharoy, S.; Torres-Jerez, I.; Nakashima, J.; Blancaflor, E.B.; Udvardi, M.K. The Nodule-Specific PLAT Domain Protein NPD1 Is Required for Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiosis. Plant Physiol. 2019, 180, 1480–1497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Wang, D.; Yang, S.; Tang, F.; Zhu, H. Symbiosis specificity in the legume: Rhizobial mutualism. Cell. Microbiol. 2012, 14, 334–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Yang, S.; Wang, Q.; Fedorova, E.; Liu, J.; Qin, Q.; Zheng, Q.; Price, P.A.; Pan, H.; Wang, D.; Griffitts, J.S.; et al. Microsymbiont discrimination mediated by a host-secreted peptide in Medicago truncatula. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 6848–6853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Roy, P.; Achom, M.; Wilkinson, H.; Lagunas, B.; Gifford, M.L. Symbiotic Outcome Modified by the Diversification from 7 to over 700 Nodule-Specific Cysteine-Rich Peptides. Genes 2020, 11, 348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Downie, J.A.; Kondorosi, E. Why Should Nodule Cysteine-Rich (NCR) Peptides Be Absent From Nodules of Some Groups of Legumes but Essential for Symbiotic N-Fixation in Others? Front. Agron. 2021, 3, 654576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Montiel, J.; Downie, J.A.; Farkas, A.; Bihari, P.; Herczeg, R.; Bálint, B.; Mergaert, P.; Kereszt, A.; Kondorosi, É. Morphotype of bacteroids in different legumes correlates with the number and type of symbiotic NCR peptides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 5041–5046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Evers, G.W. Forage legumes: Forage quality, fixed nitrogen, or both. Crop Sci. 2011, 51, 403–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Carlsson, G.; Huss-Danell, K. Nitrogen fixation in perennial forage legumes in the field. Plant Soil 2003, 253, 353–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ball, D.M.; Hoveland, C.S.; Lacefield, G.D. Southern Forages; International Plant Nutrition Group: Peachtree Corners, GA, USA, 2007; 332p. [Google Scholar]
  19. Taylor, N. A century of clover breeding developments in the United States. Crop Sci. 2008, 48, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Vizintin, L.; Javornik, B.; Bohanec, B. Genetic characterization of selected Trifolium species as revealed by nuclear DNA content and ITS rDNA region analysis. Plant Sci. 2006, 170, 859–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Riday, H.; Krohn, A.L. Genetic map-based location of the red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) gametophytic self-incompatibility locus. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2010, 121, 761–767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Chakrabarti, M.; Dinkins, R.D.; Hunt, A.G. De novo Transcriptome Assembly and Dynamic Spatial Gene Expression Analysis in Red Clover. Plant Genome-US 2016, 9, plantgenome2015.06.0048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  23. Istvanek, J.; Jaros, M.; Krenek, A.; Repkova, J. Genome assembly and annotation for red clover (Trifolium pratense; Fabaceae). Am. J. Bot. 2014, 101, 327–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. De Vega, J.J.; Ayling, S.; Hegarty, M.; Kudrna, D.; Goicoechea, J.L.; Ergon, A.; Rognli, O.A.; Jones, C.; Swain, M.; Geurts, R.; et al. Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) draft genome provides a platform for trait improvement. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 17394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Bickhart, D.M.; Koch, L.M.; Smith, T.P.L.; Riday, H.; Sullivan, M.L. Chromosome-scale assembly of the highly heterozygous genome of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), an allogamous forage crop species. Gigabyte 2022, 2022, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Li, W.; Riday, H.; Riehle, C.; Edwards, A.; Dinkins, R. Identification of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism in Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) Using Targeted Genomic Amplicon Sequencing and RNA-seq. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Osterman, J.; Hammenhag, C.; Ortiz, R.; Geleta, M. Insights Into the Genetic Diversity of Nordic Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) Revealed by SeqSNP-Based Genic Markers. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 748750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Jones, C.; De Vega, J.; Lloyd, D.; Hegarty, M.; Ayling, S.; Powell, W.; Skøt, L. Population structure and genetic diversity in red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) germplasm. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 8364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Istvanek, J.; Dluhosova, J.; Dluhos, P.; Patkova, L.; Nedelnik, J.; Repkova, J. Gene Classification and Mining of Molecular Markers Useful in Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) Breeding. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Benevenuto, J.; Bhakta, M.; Lohr, D.A.; Ferrão, L.F.V.; Resende, M.F.R.; Kirst, M.; Quesenberry, K.; Munoz, P. Cost-effective detection of genome-wide signatures for 2,4-D herbicide resistance adaptation in red clover. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 20037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Trněný, O.; Vlk, D.; Macková, E.; Matoušková, M.; Řepková, J.; Nedělník, J.; Hofbauer, J.; Vejražka, K.; Jakešová, H.; Jansa, J.; et al. Allelic Variants for Candidate Nitrogen Fixation Genes Revealed by Sequencing in Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.). Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 5470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Dinkins, R.D.; Hancock, J.; Coe, B.L.; May, J.B.; Goodman, J.P.; Bass, W.T.; Liu, J.; Fan, Y.; Zheng, Q.; Zhu, H. Isoflavone levels, nodulation and gene expression profiles of a CRISPR/Cas9 deletion mutant in the isoflavone synthase gene of red clover. Plant Cell Rep. 2021, 40, 517–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Hohnjec, N.; Lenz, F.; Fehlberg, V.; Vieweg, M.F.; Baier, M.C.; Hause, B.; Küster, H. The Signal Peptide of the Medicago truncatula Modular Nodulin MtNOD25 Operates as an Address Label for the Specific Targeting of Proteins to Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiosomes. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2009, 22, 63–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Chakrabarti, M.; Dinkins, R.D.; Hunt, A.G. Genome-wide atlas of alternative polyadenylation in the forage legume red clover. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 11379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Jenei, S.; Tiricz, H.; Szolomájer, J.; Tímár, E.; Klement, É.; Al Bouni, M.A.; Lima, R.M.; Kata, D.; Harmati, M.; Buzás, K.; et al. Potent Chimeric Antimicrobial Derivatives of the Medicago truncatula NCR247 Symbiotic Peptide. Front. Microbiol. 2020, 11, 270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Lima, R.M.; Kylarová, S.; Mergaert, P.; Kondorosi, É. Unexplored Arsenals of Legume Peptides with Potential for Their Applications in Medicine and Agriculture. Front. Microbiol. 2020, 11, 1307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Parisi, K.; Shafee, T.M.A.; Quimbar, P.; van der Weerden, N.L.; Bleackley, M.R.; Anderson, M.A. The evolution, function and mechanisms of action for plant defensins. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2019, 88, 107–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Terras, F.R.; Eggermont, K.; Kovaleva, V.; Raikhel, N.V.; Osborn, R.W.; Kester, A.; Rees, S.B.; Torrekens, S.; Van Leuven, F.; Vanderleyden, J. Small cysteine-rich antifungal proteins from radish: Their role in host defense. Plant Cell 1995, 7, 573–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Burghardt, L.T.; Trujillo, D.I.; Epstein, B.; Tiffin, P.; Young, N.D. A Select and Resequence Approach Reveals Strain-Specific Effects of Medicago Nodule-Specific PLAT-Domain Genes. Plant Physiol. 2020, 182, 463–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Schauser, L.; Roussis, A.; Stiller, J.; Stougaard, J. A plant regulator controlling development of symbiotic root nodules. Nature 1999, 402, 191–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Soyano, T.; Kouchi, H.; Hirota, A.; Hayashi, M. Nodule Inception Directly Targets NF-Y Subunit Genes to Regulate Essential Processes of Root Nodule Development in Lotus japonicus. PLoS Genet. 2013, 9, e1003352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Laloum, T.; Baudin, M.; Frances, L.; Lepage, A.; Billault-Penneteau, B.; Cerri, M.R.; Ariel, F.; Jardinaud, M.-F.; Gamas, P.; de Carvalho-Niebel, F.; et al. Two CCAAT-box-binding transcription factors redundantly regulate early steps of the legume-rhizobia endosymbiosis. Plant J. 2014, 79, 757–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Combier, J.-P.; Frugier, F.; de Billy, F.; Boualem, A.; El-Yahyaoui, F.; Moreau, S.; Vernié, T.; Ott, T.; Gamas, P.; Crespi, M.; et al. MtHAP2-1 is a key transcriptional regulator of symbiotic nodule development regulated by microRNA169 in Medicago truncatula. Genes Dev. 2006, 20, 3084–3088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  44. Xiao, T.T.; Schilderink, S.; Moling, S.; Deinum, E.E.; Kondorosi, E.; Franssen, H.; Kulikova, O.; Niebel, A.; Bisseling, T. Fate map of Medicago truncatula root nodules. Development 2014, 141, 3517–3528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. Fournier, J.; Teillet, A.; Chabaud, M.; Ivanov, S.; Genre, A.; Limpens, E.; de Carvalho-Niebel, F.; Barker, D.G. Remodeling of the Infection Chamber before Infection Thread Formation Reveals a Two-Step Mechanism for Rhizobial Entry into the Host Legume Root Hair. Plant Physiol. 2015, 167, 1233–1242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Xie, F.; Murray, J.D.; Kim, J.; Heckmann, A.B.; Edwards, A.; Oldroyd, G.E.D.; Downie, J.A. Legume pectate lyase required for root infection by rhizobia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 109, 633–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  47. Marsh, J.F.; Rakocevic, A.; Mitra, R.M.; Brocard, L.; Sun, J.; Eschstruth, A.; Long, S.R.; Schultze, M.; Ratet, P.; Oldroyd, G.E.D. Medicago truncatula NIN Is Essential for Rhizobial-Independent Nodule Organogenesis Induced by Autoactive Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase. Plant Physiol. 2007, 144, 324–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Vernié, T.; Kim, J.; Frances, L.; Ding, Y.; Sun, J.; Guan, D.; Niebel, A.; Gifford, M.L.; de Carvalho-Niebel, F.; Oldroyd, G.E.D. The NIN Transcription Factor Coordinates Diverse Nodulation Programs in Different Tissues of the Medicago truncatula Root. Plant Cell 2015, 27, 3410–3424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Liu, J.; Rutten, L.; Limpens, E.; van der Molen, T.; van Velzen, R.; Chen, R.; Chen, Y.; Geurts, R.; Kohlen, W.; Kulikova, O.; et al. A Remote cis-Regulatory Region Is Required for NIN Expression in the Pericycle to Initiate Nodule Primordium Formation in Medicago truncatula. Plant Cell 2019, 31, 68–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  50. Combier, J.P.; de Billy, F.; Gamas, P.; Niebel, A.; Rivas, S. Trans-regulation of the expression of the transcription factor MtHAP2-1 by a uORF controls root nodule development. Genes Dev. 2008, 22, 1549–1559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Sorin, C.; Declerck, M.; Christ, A.; Blein, T.; Ma, L.; Lelandais-Brière, C.; Njo, M.F.; Beeckman, T.; Crespi, M.; Hartmann, C. A miR169 isoform regulates specificNF-YAtargets and root architecture in Arabidopsis. New Phytol. 2014, 202, 1197–1211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Wang, D.; Griffitts, J.; Starker, C.; Fedorova, E.; Limpens, E.; Ivanov, S.; Bisseling, T.; Long, S. A nodule-specific protein secretory pathway required for nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. Science 2010, 327, 1126–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  53. Huisman, R.; Hontelez, J.; Mysore, K.S.; Wen, J.; Bisseling, T.; Limpens, E. A symbiosis-dedicated SYNTAXIN OF PLANTS 13II isoform controls the formation of a stable host–microbe interface in symbiosis. New Phytol. 2016, 211, 1338–1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Pan, H.; Oztas, O.; Zhang, X.; Wu, X.; Stonoha, C.; Wang, E.; Wang, B.; Wang, D. A symbiotic SNARE protein generated by alternative termination of transcription. Nat. Plants 2016, 2, 15197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Yu, L.; Huang, T.; Qi, X.; Yu, J.; Wu, T.; Luo, Z.; Zhou, L.; Li, Y. Genome-Wide Analysis of Long Non-coding RNAs Involved in Nodule Senescence in Medicago truncatula. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 917840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Sinharoy, S.; Torres-Jerez, I.; Bandyopadhyay, K.; Kereszt, A.; Pislariu, C.I.; Nakashima, J.; Benedito, V.A.; Kondorosi, E.; Udvardi, M.K. The C2H2 Transcription Factor REGULATOR OF SYMBIOSOME DIFFERENTIATION Represses Transcription of the Secretory Pathway Gene VAMP721a and Promotes Symbiosome Development in Medicago truncatula. Plant Cell 2013, 25, 3584–3601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Roux, B.; Rodde, N.; Jardinaud, M.-F.; Timmers, T.; Sauviac, L.; Cottret, L.; Carrère, S.; Sallet, E.; Courcelle, E.; Moreau, S.; et al. An integrated analysis of plant and bacterial gene expression in symbiotic root nodules using laser-capture microdissection coupled to RNA sequencing. Plant J. 2014, 77, 817–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Bisseling, T.; Geurts, R. Specificity in legume nodule symbiosis. Science 2020, 369, 620–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Bozsoki, Z.; Cheng, J.; Feng, F.; Gysel, K.; Vinther, M.; Andersen, K.R.; Oldroyd, G.; Blaise, M.; Radutoiu, S.; Stougaard, J. Receptor-mediated chitin perception in legume roots is functionally separable from Nod factor perception. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, E8118–E8127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  60. Zhou, P.; Silverstein, K.A.T.; Gao, L.; Walton, J.D.; Nallu, S.; Guhlin, J.; Young, N.D. Detecting small plant peptides using SPADA (Small Peptide Alignment Discovery Application). BMC Bioinform. 2013, 14, 335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Nielsen, H.; Engelbrecht, J.; Brunak, S.; von Heijne, G. Identification of prokaryotic and eukaryotic signal peptides and prediction of their cleavage sites. Protein Eng. Des. Sel. 1997, 10, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Bendtsen, J.D.; Nielsen, H.; von Heijne, G.; Brunak, S. Improved Prediction of Signal Peptides: SignalP 3.0. J. Mol. Biol. 2004, 340, 783–795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Tian, T.; Liu, Y.; Yan, H.; You, Q.; Yi, X.; Du, Z.; Xu, W.; Su, Z. agriGO v2.0: A GO analysis toolkit for the agricultural community, 2017 update. Nucleic Acids Res. 2017, 45, W122–W129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Plants 11 02888 g001 550
Figure 1. (a) Dendogram and heat map of Nod+ (labeled as Nodp for the samples displayed in the figure vertical axis) and Nod− (labeled as Nodm for the samples displayed in the vertical axis) expression profiles for each individual sample and (b) volcano plot showing differential expression between Nod+ (NodP) and Nod− (NodM) root samples.
Figure 1. (a) Dendogram and heat map of Nod+ (labeled as Nodp for the samples displayed in the figure vertical axis) and Nod− (labeled as Nodm for the samples displayed in the vertical axis) expression profiles for each individual sample and (b) volcano plot showing differential expression between Nod+ (NodP) and Nod− (NodM) root samples.
Plants 11 02888 g001
Plants 11 02888 g002 550
Figure 2. Number of the red clover NCR peptides distributed by isoelectric point (pI).
Figure 2. Number of the red clover NCR peptides distributed by isoelectric point (pI).
Plants 11 02888 g002
Table
Table 1. Highest expressing red clover genes in Nod+ root samples.
Table 1. Highest expressing red clover genes in Nod+ root samples.
Feature ID Normalized Reads (Means) Nod−Normalized Reads (Means) Nod+Log2 Diff Express (Nod+) /(Nod−) Product
LOC123882175381.5274,205.387.60leghemoglobin_Lb120-1
LOC12388218131.6263,699.0510.98leghemoglobin_Lb120-1
LOC12391681515.5557,593.4411.86nodulin-25-like isoform X10
LOC123902448328.6438,271.056.86early nodulin-75-like
LOC1238821807.6228,608.0711.88leghemoglobin_Lb120-1
LOC12391740897.6527,409.228.13nodulin-26-like isoform X2
LOC12388217617.4724,305.1710.44leghemoglobin_Lb120-1
LOC1238990734.5022,133.7412.26Embryo-specific protein ATS3B-like; NPD
LOC1238842815.0820,011.8711.95ctenidin-1-like
LOC1239168836.7217,961.3411.38NMS32/34 protein, putative
LOC1239156583049.6713,975.222.20bifunctional aspartate aminotransferase
LOC1238931404110.6513,859.391.75legume-specific_protein
LOC1239189404.2313,807.5511.67NMS32/34 protein, putative
LOC12389106918.1413,225.909.51leghemoglobin_Lb120-1
LOC12388845257.9912,010.797.69early_nodulin_ENOD18
LOC1239133202502.6811,384.902.19glutamine synthetase nodule isozyme
LOC1239093566.2710,611.0310.72basic blue protein-like
LOC1238956312916.8910,575.691.86inactive beta-amylase 9
LOC123921269829.7910,351.603.64chaperone protein dnaJ 8, chloroplastic
LOC1239115354108.6710,330.981.33heavy metal-associated isoprenylated plant protein 6-like
Table
Table 2. Most differentially expressed red clover genes in Nod− root samples compared to Nod+ samples.
Table 2. Most differentially expressed red clover genes in Nod− root samples compared to Nod+ samples.
Feature ID Normalized Reads (Means) Nod−Normalized Reads (Means) Nod+Log2 Diff Express (Nod+) /(Nod−) Product
LOC123899143201.603.086.03wound-responsive_family_protein
LOC123898241210.613.435.94wound-responsive_family_protein
LOC123899195171.982.865.91structural_constituent_of_cell_wall_protein,_putative
LOC123900972110.722.635.39sesquiterpene_synthase
LOC12392325899.893.964.66sesquiterpene_synthase
LOC123908919312.5313.934.49geranylgeranyl_pyrophosphate_synthase
LOC12389122166.373.094.42disease_resistance_protein_(TIR-NBS-LRR_class)
LOC12392009645.482.204.37replication_factor-A_carboxy-terminal_domain_protein
LOC12391777162.763.614.12translation_elongation_factor_EF1B,_gamma_chain
LOC123908518518.6730.814.07benzyl_alcohol_O-benzoyltransferase
LOC123924362826.3652.793.97polygalacturonase_plant-like_protein
LOC1239217731639.61108.423.92LysM_receptor_kinase_K1B
LOC12389919698.736.923.831-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate_oxidase-like_protein
LOC123891479241.7418.203.73cysteine/histidine-rich_C1_domain_protein
LOC123921461230.2417.493.72cytochrome_P450_family_71_protein
LOC12391295325.872.063.65cytochrome_P450_family_71_protein
LOC12390963039.543.183.64amino acid transporter AVT1H
LOC12391951015,190.121224.733.63alpha-copaene synthase-like
LOC12389130459.924.843.63zinc finger protein 6-like
LOC123919667210.9117.063.63disease_resistance-responsive,_dirigent_domain_protein
Table
Table 3. Gene ontology (GO) Biological Process (P), Molecular Function (F) and Cellular Component (C) terms terms associated with differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of red clover Nod− plants greater than Nod+ plants.
Table 3. Gene ontology (GO) Biological Process (P), Molecular Function (F) and Cellular Component (C) terms terms associated with differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of red clover Nod− plants greater than Nod+ plants.
GO TermOntologyDescriptionNumber in Input ListNumber in BG/Refp-ValueFDR
GO:0071555Pcell wall organization8626.10 × 10−50.016
GO:0045229Pexternal encapsulating structure organization8626.10 × 10−50.016
GO:0071554Pcell wall organization or biogenesis8845.10 × 10−40.077
GO:0042545Pcell wall modification6480.00060.077
GO:0030599Fpectinesterase activity6480.00060.059
GO:0020037Fheme binding203840.000420.059
GO:0046906Ftetrapyrrole binding203850.000440.059
GO:0052689Fcarboxylic ester hydrolase activity7680.000710.059
GO:0016705Foxidoreductase activity, acting on paired donors, with incorporation or reduction of molecular oxygen162920.000860.059
GO:0030312Cexternal encapsulating structure9760.0000430.0021
GO:0005618Ccell wall9760.0000430.0021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Dinkins, R.D.; Hancock, J.A.; Bickhart, D.M.; Sullivan, M.L.; Zhu, H. Expression and Variation of the Genes Involved in Rhizobium Nodulation in Red Clover. Plants 2022, 11, 2888. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212888

AMA Style

Dinkins RD, Hancock JA, Bickhart DM, Sullivan ML, Zhu H. Expression and Variation of the Genes Involved in Rhizobium Nodulation in Red Clover. Plants. 2022; 11(21):2888. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212888

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dinkins, Randy D., Julie A. Hancock, Derek M. Bickhart, Michael L. Sullivan, and Hongyan Zhu. 2022. "Expression and Variation of the Genes Involved in Rhizobium Nodulation in Red Clover" Plants 11, no. 21: 2888. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212888

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop