Enrichment of Grapes with Zinc-Efficiency of Foliar Fertilization with ZnSO4 and ZnO and Implications on Winemaking
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Fields Characteristics for Agronomic Enrichment with Zinc
2.2. Physiological Monitoring of Photoassimilates during Zinc Enrichment
2.3. Nutrient Contents in Leaves and Grapes during Zinc Enrichment
2.4. Zn Accumulation in Grapes at Harvest
2.5. Physicochemical Characteristics and Colorimetric Analysis of Grapes
2.6. Zn Accumulation in Wine
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Experimental Fields
4.2. Orthophotomap
4.3. Soil and Irrigation Water Analysis
4.4. Leaf Gas Exchange Measurements
4.5. Analysis of Nutrient Contents in Grapes and Leaves
4.6. Analysis of Total Zinc Content in Grapes and Wine
4.7. Analysis of Zinc Content in Grape Tissues
4.8. Morphometric and Colorimetric Analyses
4.9. Winemaking
4.10. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Field | Ability to Accumulate or Drain Surface Water | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slope Class (%) | Surface Drainage | Area (m2) | Area (%) | ||||||||
Lagameças | 1—(0–5%) | Low | 437.7 | 49.38 | |||||||
2—(5–20%) | Moderate | 448.4 | 50.59 | ||||||||
3—>20% | High | 0.2 | 0.02 | ||||||||
Lau Novo | 1—(0–5%) | Low | 589.9 | 34.87 | |||||||
2—(5–20%) | Moderate | 1080.5 | 63.86 | ||||||||
3—>20% | High | 21.4 | 1.27 | ||||||||
Soil analysis (0–30 cm deep) (n = 28) | |||||||||||
pH | Electrical Conductivity | Organic Matter | Ca | K | Mg | P | Fe | S | Zn | Mn | |
μS cm−1 | % | mg/kg | |||||||||
Lagameças | 7.08 ± 0.08 a | 100.83 ± 7.11 a | 1.48 ± 0.10 a | 0.28 ± 0.03 a | 2.53 ± 0.05 b | 0.07 ± 0.04 a | 0.14 ± 0.00 b | 0.47 ± 0.03 a | 36.82 ± 2.28 a | 34.65 ± 3.42 a | 191.41 ± 13.90 a |
Lau Novo | 72.05 ± 2.90 b | 6.80 ± 0.06 b | 1.09 ± 0.04 b | 0.17 ± 0.01 b | 3.20 ± 0.05 a | 0.07 ± 0.00 a | 0.20 ± 0.02 a | 0.26 ± 0.01 b | 25.03 ± 8.12 a | 23.77 ± 1.88 b | 145.11 ± 6.98 b |
Water analysis | |||||||||||
pH | Electrical Conductivity | Ca2+ | K+ | Mg2+ | Na+ | Cl− | HCO3− | SO42− | NO3− | PO43− | |
μS cm−1 | mg L−1 (meq L−1) | ||||||||||
Lau Novo | 6.27 | 252.01 | 8.51 (0.40) | 3.98 (0.12) | 4.39 (0.31) | 21.73 (0.93) | 34.70 (0.90) | 34.77 (0.51) | 33.10 (0.63) | 17.40 (0.21) | <1.5 (<0.04) |
Leaves | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Treatments | Zn | Cu | Fe | Ca | K | S | P | |
mg/kg | mg/kg | mg/kg | % | % | % | % | ||
Castelão | Control | 33.87 ± 1.35 eA | 61.91 ± 4.51 bB | 110.47 ± 9.38 aA | 2.78 ± 0.06 dB | 2.60 ± 0.05 c,dA | 0.65 ± 0.02 aA | 0.25 ± 0.01 bA |
ZnO (150 g ha−1) | 98.89 ± 2.03 dB | 81.20 ± 0.80 aB | 74.97 ± 0.90 aA | 3.60 ± 0.09 aB | 2.95 ± 0.07 bA | 0.61 ± 0.01 a,bA | 0.31 ± 0.00 aA | |
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 309.44 ± 1.49 bA | 72.08 ± 3.01 a,bB | 111.62 ± 5.94 aA | 3.21 ± 0.10 b,cB | 3.68 ± 0.06 aA | 0.65 ± 0.02 aA | 0.31 ± 0.01 aB | |
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 490.55 ± 12.32 aB | 40.27 ± 0.72 cB | 100.54 ± 12.19 aA | 3.71 ± 0.06 aA | 2.39 ± 0.06 dA | 0.54 ± 0.03 b,cA | 0.31 ± 0.02 aA | |
ZnSO4 (150 g ha−1) | 284.22 ± 8.59 bA | 61.99 ± 5.26 bB | 103.69 ± 12.73 aB | 3.12 ± 0.03 cB | 3.01 ± 0.04 bA | 0.52 ± 0.01 cA | 0.24 ± 0.01 bA | |
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 113.26 ± 1.49 dB | 66.47 ± 2.19 a,bB | 115.80 ± 6.36 aA | 3.51 ± 0.03 a,bB | 2.47 ± 0.01 c,dA | 0.58 ± 0.01 a,b,cA | 0.29 ± 0.01 a,bA | |
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 196.35 ± 3.40 cB | 58.72 ± 2.78 bB | 96.85 ± 5.69 aA | 3.09 ± 0.02 cB | 2.68 ± 0.05 cA | 0.55 ± 0.01 b,cA | 0.26 ± 0.00 bB | |
Moscatel | Control | 17.47 ± 3.09 eB | 1883.46 ± 4.81 b,cA | 60.29 ± 4.47 bB | 3.22 ± 0.06 eA | 2.35 ± 0.05 a,bA | 0.42 ± 0.00 cB | 0.20 ± 0.00 dB |
ZnO (150 g ha−1) | 135.64 ± 3.72 cA | 2121.86 ± 67.14 a,bA | 74.42 ± 4.77 bA | 4.19 ± 0.11 b,cA | 2.48 ± 0.04 a,bB | 0.50 ± 0.02 bB | 0.31 ± 0.01 b,cA | |
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 289.95 ± 11.98 bA | 1492.61 ± 45.03 cA | 67.58 ± 9.79 bB | 4.53 ± 0.07 a,bA | 2.65 ± 0.06 aB | 0.57 ± 0.01 aB | 0.37 ± 0.01 aA | |
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 584.25 ± 6.39 aA | 2217.30 ± 20.80 a,bA | 93.73 ± 10.83 bA | 3.63 ± 0.03 d,eA | 2.30 ± 0.06 bA | 0.43 ± 0.00 b,cB | 0.37 ± 0.01 a,bA | |
ZnSO4 (150 g ha−1) | 73.22 ± 3.83 dB | 2264.28 ± 158.37 a,bA | 168.73 ± 2.91 aA | 3.89 ± 0.05 c,dA | 2.27 ± 0.01 bB | 0.46 ± 0.03 b,cA | 0.26 ± 0.02 cA | |
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 183.94 ± 5.87 cA | 2445.83 ± 67.57 aA | 96.46 ± 3.36 bA | 3.98 ± 0.10 c,dA | 2.41 ± 0.09 a,bA | 0.49 ± 0.01 b,cB | 0.31 ± 0.02 cA | |
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 323.64 ± 22.52 bA | 1593.96 ± 144.08 cA | 98.19 ± 15.91 bA | 4.70 ± 0.15 aA | 2.30 ± 0.11 bB | 0.48 ± 0.02 b,cB | 0.29 ± 0.01 cA | |
Grapes | ||||||||
Treatments | Zn | Cu | Fe | Ca | K | S | P | |
mg/kg | mg/kg | mg/kg | % | % | % | % | ||
Castelão | Control | 7.19 ± 0.73 cB | n.d. | 0.53 ± 0.01 b,cB | 2.02 ± 0.07 aA | 0.16 ± 0.00 b,cA | 0.18 ± 0.01 dB | |
ZnO (150 g ha−1) | 9.29 ± 0.36 b,cB | 0.81 ± 0.06 aA | 2.64 ± 0.13 aA | 0.21 ± 0.01 aA | 0.28 ± 0.01 aA | |||
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 9.99 ± 1.59 b,cA | 0.77 ± 0.06 a,bA | 2.36 ± 0.26 aA | 0.17 ± 0.01 b,cA | 0.21 ± 0.00 c,dA | |||
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 16.03 ± 0.34 aB | 0.81 ± 0.05 aA | 2.18 ± 0.01 aA | 0.20 ± 0.01 a,bA | 0.26 ± 0.01 a,bA | |||
ZnSO4 (150 g ha−1) | 8.45 ± 0.75 b,cB | 0.63 ± 0.07 a,b,cA | 2.20 ± 0.27 aA | 0.20 ± 0.01 a,b,cA | 0.23 ± 0.01 b,cA | |||
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 7.84 ± 0.41 b,cB | 0.66 ± 0.05 a,b,cA | 2.05 ± 0.04 aA | 0.19 ± 0.00 a,b,cA | 0.23 ± 0.01 b,cA | |||
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 11.44 ± 1.08 bA | 0.48 ± 0.03 cB | 2.18 ± 0.02 aA | 0.16 ± 0.01 cA | 0.20 ± 0.00 c,dB | |||
Moscatel | Control | 12.58 ± 0.49 cA | n.d. | 0.77 ± 0.05 a,bA | 2.06 ± 0.03 aA | 0.16 ± 0.00 a,bA | 0.29 ± 0.00 aA | |
ZnO (150 g ha−1) | 11.38 ± 0.56 cA | 0.73 ± 0.05 a,bA | 1.83 ± 0.05 a,bB | 0.16 ± 0.00 a,bB | 0.23 ± 0.00 b,cB | |||
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 13.42 ± 0.09 b,cA | 0.64 ± 0.02 bA | 1.88 ± 0.07 a,bA | 0.16 ± 0.00 a,bA | 0.20 ± 0.01 c,dA | |||
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 21.16 ± 1.74 aA | 0.89 ± 0.03 aA | 1.87 ± 0.09 a,bB | 0.15 ± 0.01 bB | 0.22 ± 0.01 b,c,dA | |||
ZnSO4 (150 g ha−1) | 11.47 ± 0.13 cA | 0.81 ± 0.06 a,bA | 1.56 ± 0.10 bA | 0.15 ± 0.01 a,bB | 0.19 ± 0.01 dA | |||
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 16.73 ± 0.86 bA | 0.75 ± 0.04 a,bA | 1.83 ± 0.06 a,bB | 0.18 ± 0.01 aA | 0.25 ± 0.01 a,bA | |||
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 14.41 ± 0.31 b,cA | 0.65 ± 0.03 bA | 1.58 ± 0.07 bB | 0.16 ± 0.00 a,bA | 0.23 ± 0.01 b,c,dA |
Treatments | Zn (mg/kg) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Skin | Seeds | |||
Castelão | Moscatel | Castelão | Moscatel | |
Control | 20.06 ± 1.00 cB | 38.34 ± 1.92 aA | 16.02 ± 0.80 cA | 13.57 ± 0.68 cB |
ZnO (150 g ha−1) | 16.61 ± 0.83 cB | 31.12 ± 1.56 bA | 10.96 ± 0.55 dB | 15.64 ± 0.78 cA |
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 21.78 ± 1.09 cB | 27.49 ± 1.37 bcA | 20.87 ± 1.04 bA | 14.59 ± 0.73 cB |
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 54.37 ± 2.72 aA | 22.68 ± 1.13 cB | 27.79 ± 1.39 aA | 16.82 ± 0.84 bcB |
ZnSO4 (150 g ha−1) | 21.48 ± 1.07 cA | 21.17 ± 2.71 cA | 10.63 ± 0.53 dA | 9.82 ± 0.49 dA |
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 17.53 ± 0.88 cB | 32.16 ± 1.61 abA | 15.48 ± 0.77 cB | 19.70 ± 0.99 bA |
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 30.16 ± 1.51 bA | 23.25 ± 1.16 cB | 15.73 ± 0.79 cB | 28.59 ± 1.43 aA |
Treatments | Wine | |
---|---|---|
Zn (µg L−1) | ||
Castelão | Moscatel | |
Control | 0.68 ± 0.27 aA | 0.54 ± 0.26 cA |
ZnO (450 g ha−1) | 0.77 ± 0.10 aB | 1.20 ± 0.08 bA |
ZnO (900 g ha−1) | 0.91 ± 0.08 aA | 1.05 ± 0.02 b,cA |
ZnSO4 (450 g ha−1) | 0.89 ± 0.02 aB | 1.17 ± 0.06 bA |
ZnSO4 (900 g ha−1) | 0.82 ± 0.14 aB | 1.92 ± 0.10 aA |
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Daccak, D.; Lidon, F.C.; Pessoa, C.C.; Luís, I.C.; Coelho, A.R.F.; Marques, A.C.; Ramalho, J.C.; Silva, M.J.; Rodrigues, A.P.; Guerra, M.; et al. Enrichment of Grapes with Zinc-Efficiency of Foliar Fertilization with ZnSO4 and ZnO and Implications on Winemaking. Plants 2022, 11, 1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111399
Daccak D, Lidon FC, Pessoa CC, Luís IC, Coelho ARF, Marques AC, Ramalho JC, Silva MJ, Rodrigues AP, Guerra M, et al. Enrichment of Grapes with Zinc-Efficiency of Foliar Fertilization with ZnSO4 and ZnO and Implications on Winemaking. Plants. 2022; 11(11):1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111399
Chicago/Turabian StyleDaccak, Diana, Fernando C. Lidon, Cláudia Campos Pessoa, Inês Carmo Luís, Ana Rita F. Coelho, Ana Coelho Marques, José C. Ramalho, Maria José Silva, Ana Paula Rodrigues, Mauro Guerra, and et al. 2022. "Enrichment of Grapes with Zinc-Efficiency of Foliar Fertilization with ZnSO4 and ZnO and Implications on Winemaking" Plants 11, no. 11: 1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111399