Leadership Styles, Motivation, Communication and Reward Systems in Business Performance

Abstract

This research project aims to analyse the leadership and communication styles adopted by Angolan companies, particularly in Benguela province, and their impact on the results of these organisations. In Angola, and with the recent assimilation of the principles of market economy, the figure of the leader must abandon old management paradigms and integrate the modern principles of management of organisations into their functions, not only focusing on achieving the goals of the company but also on creating an environment conducive to the participation and involvement of employees, articulating strategies so that everyone grows in and with the organisation. Thus, the general objective of the research is to assess the managers’ perception of their leadership style (transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire) and its impact on the organisation’s performance. To this end, a quantitative study was carried out using a questionnaire, using, among other dimensions, the multifactorial leadership questionnaire (MLQ), distributed to a sample of 227 managers. Data were analysed using SPSS using descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (t-test, ANOVA, Tukey’s test). The results show that the leaders perceive their leadership styles as transformational and recognise that communication, motivation, and the reward system strongly impact the organisation’s performance.

1. Introduction

The world and current societies are undergoing major economic, social, cultural, political, and technological transformations (Lambin 2008; Barroso 2020) that present themselves as new challenges for organisations. Faced with this context of drastic, rapid and continuous changes, organisations must be able to adapt and reinvent themselves to face this new reality (Lambin 2008; Bochulia 2021; Sascha et al. 2022). It is precisely in this more complex context that it is important to study leadership, communication, and motivation as the phenomena are related to the guidance and influence of people to achieve collective pre-established objectives (Bass 1990b; Weber 1991; Lin et al. 2018; Barroso 2020; Sascha et al. 2022).

Leadership, communication, and motivation are outcomes of human resource management aimed at employee satisfaction and well-being (Buil et al. 2019) based on the rewards and benefits offered to employees, whether monetary or non-monetary. The work of Bennis (1999) has shown that in successful companies, there is a significant impact of leadership on employees and the results obtained by the organisations. In fact, leaders incorporate the values and ideals of the organisation, seeking to mobilise the entire human structure in the sharing of these ideals, with obvious repercussions on the organisational culture (Košičiarová et al. 2021), job performance Cahyadi et al. (2022), and economic and financial results (Weick 1979; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022).

Leadership, communication, and motivation are themes that arouse interest at both academic and professional levels (Bass 1990a, 1990b, 1990c; Avolio and Bass 1995; Bass and Riggio 2006; Lan et al. 2019; Akparep et al. 2019; Košičiarová et al. 2021; Choi 2021; Cui et al. 2022; Cahyadi et al. 2022; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022; Wang and Huang 2022; Gutu et al. 2022). Given the current organisational environment, the result of constant changes, namely market globalization, technological development, and increased competitiveness (Bhavani 2006; Lambin 2008; Grabowska and Saniuk 2022; Sascha et al. 2022), it is important to reflect on how Angolan organisations view leadership and its impact on the health and development of the organisation. In fact, to lead and guide companies in this complex, turbulent, and unpredictable context, managers and supervisors must play a leadership role capable of mobilizing their employees, guiding, motivating, communicating, and involving people in business tasks and objectives (Lambin 2008). Due to the recent assimilation of market economy principles in Angola and because most of the authors have been teaching in post-graduate and master’s programs, the authors wanted to determine if the modern principles of organisational management are applied, as they are essential in the participation and involvement of employees in the planning and development process of the organisation. It is important to emphasize that the students of the study programs in which the authors participated in Angola were senior managers of companies and public administration, which stimulated the study by the authors because they could see a generalized desire for change in the country in loco.

In any sector of activity, leadership assumes itself as a fundamental element for organisations operating in more complex environments, marked by transformations due to competitiveness, market globalisation, and technological progress (Lambin 2008; Bochulia 2021; Gutu et al. 2022; Sascha et al. 2022). Its pertinence is visible in a set of circumstances, such as labour relations with probable interference in the efficiency of the organisation. In both the social and organisational contexts, the topic of leadership, which is usually associated with the concepts of “power”, “authority”, “influence”, and “persuasion” (Cahyadi et al. 2022; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022), is of interest to this research work. Katz and Kahn (1985) explained that the effectiveness and development of organisations are based on the phenomenon of leadership. The same authors proposed four causes that support the need for the existence of leadership in any organisation, namely:

(a) imperfection of the organisational design (the actual interaction that develops in the organisation is sometimes much more complex than its own organisational design, and for that reason, it may be necessary for the leader to execute a fusion between the organisation and its design);

(b) changing environmental conditions (when faced with large-scale fluctuations in the company’s environment, the return to the system’s equilibrium requires great inventiveness and execution capacity, which requires good leadership skills);

(c) internal dynamics of the organisation (the difference between different subsystems associated with eventual new functions may make necessary a persistent modification that the leader must head as a result of the environmental adjustment); and

(d) the organisations’ human resources (the members of the organisations incorporate their extra-organisational relationship in the organisation, and the result of this situation should be managed by the leader). The same authors, Katz and Kahn (1985), stated that in addition to the four causes that support the need for leadership in any organisation, it is vital to understand its nature because it is the result of the intersection of a set of social factors and the peculiarities of the people who are part of it. In this sense, they propose three types of orientation in the leadership of organisations, that is, having the ability to: (a) introduce structural modifications (creative capacity), (b) integrate the existing formal structure in conjunctural situations (interpolation capacity), and (c) use the power of leadership to manage (use of the existing structure).

Although there are several studies on leadership and many different definitions result from them (Bass 1990a), the truth is that not all studies and definitions coincide. However, the common denominator is the recognition that leadership involves leading people to influence them to achieve previously defined objectives. In Weber’s (1991) perspective, the leader is the source of influence over other individuals who acts in the historical, social and organisational contexts.

The concept of leadership is an open concept, which can be analysed from different approaches. Sánchez and Alonso (2005) distinguished several theoretical approaches in the study of leadership: those focused on the leader, those focused on the followers and the interaction between the leader and their followers, and, finally, the approach that tries to integrate all the previous aspects in a global way. Chiavenato (1987) considered that leadership is achieved through the interpersonal influence that is directed during a process of human communication tending to the pursuit of a certain goal. Garner (1990) stated that, through persuasion over people, one can induce one or a group of people to dedicate themselves to the objectives defended and shared by the leader. The work of Bennis (1999) showed that the impact of leadership on subordinates and the results obtained by the organisation is significant and is a relevant characteristic in successful companies. Leaders articulate and embody the values and ideals for which the organisation strives and therefore play an important role in the behaviour of organisations (Akparep et al. 2019; Cahyadi et al. 2022; Wang and Huang 2022; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022). According to Bolívar (2003), stimulated leadership promotes sharing information and clarifying the subordinates’ objectives and expectations. The author advocates participative leadership where there is an interactive process and a true sharing of values, processes through which the leader regulates the mobilisation of individual wills converting them into collective action. From the different definitions of leadership, we can group them into different categories, namely (a) as the core of group processes, (b) the leader as an individual with an important personality, (c) as the art of inducing others into the process of submission;, (d) as a process of social and personal control, (e) as a power relationship, (f) as a particular mode of persuasion, (g) as an expression of certain behaviours, (h) as an instrument for the attainment of objectives, (i) as a process of influence, (j) as an effect of group interaction, (k) as differentiation of roles, and (l) as a process of leadership and direction (Bass 1990c). It is precisely in this last category of definitions that we frame our study as in the context of organisations, leadership has been focused preferentially as a property associated with the structural hierarchy, the personality of the individual, and the set of conducts of the members of a given organisation. Leadership is a relationship between an individual and the group that becomes an essential tool for organisations for increasing the chances of achieving their objectives.

In this sense, the main objective of this research study was to identify the leadership styles that stand out in companies in Benguela province and their impact on the performance of organisations.

2. Literature Background

2.1. Leadership Theories

Vergara (2000) stated that leadership is essential for fulfilling the mission, vision, and objectives of the organisation, allowing individual interests to be reconciled with the strategic designs of the organisation. According to Yukl (1998), leadership has taken on different perspectives over time:

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Leadership is an increase in influence over and above a mechanical submission with the organisation’s procedures;

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Leadership is a process of influencing the activities of a group in pursuit of a goal;

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Leadership is a process of giving meaning and direction to a collective effort and provoking a desire to channel efforts towards that goal.

In the perspective of Vries (1997), leadership is the ability to have people execute actions that they do not enjoy while enjoying performing them. McGregor (cited in Motta and Vasconcelos 2002) addresses the difference in assumptions about human nature and its motivations corresponding to different leadership styles and compares the profile of those led: (a) in “Theory X”, where people are lazy and indolent, avoid work, and need to be watched (there is practically no leadership and the hierarchical administrative posture prevails); (b) in “Theory Y” where people enjoy work and are creative and competent (the actions related to leadership prevail).

However, leadership is not the exclusive function of people who occupy hierarchically superior positions in organisations (Kouzes and Posner 1997) because it occurs whenever someone tries to influence the behaviour of a person or a group of people, regardless of their purpose (Ngodo 2008; Sofi and Devanadhen 2015; Akparep et al. 2019). Quintella (1994) presents some basic requirements for effective leadership (

Table 1. Evaluation of the leadership style.

Leadership Style	Negative Aspects of the Leader	Positive Aspect of the Leader
Critic	Dictator takes repressive and authoritarian positions; rarely open to new ideas and procedures	Informed, competently assesses, analyses pros and cons, and conveys security
Coach	Suffocates and manipulates the employee	Motivator encourages employees and stimulates professional development Knows how to listen and cares about the physical, mental and economic health of the employee
Non-interventionist	Omissive loners, not concerned with employee welfare or any interpersonal relationship	Liberators do not interfere so that the employees are free to set their own pace of work
Analyst	Permanent computers process data and are often inadequate in relating to the human element	Communicators are extremely powerful for their ability to collect data, analyse them, and estimate probabilities
Peacemaker	Obedient, a true doormat, meek, offers no resistance, becomes annoying because he/she wants to keep up with everyone and rarely succeeds	Negotiator par excellence promotes a balanced atmosphere and generates a good working environment
Fighter	Rebellious and hostile, plays hard to get, wants to win at any price, and thirsts for revenge when things go wrong	They direct their aggressiveness to stimulate integration with their collaborators. They fight for the success of the team against the competitors. Has a sense of justice and integrity
Inventor	Mad scientist that always wants to invent something new and isolates themselves to create ideas in the hope of being approved by others	Creators appreciate their flow of new ideas and energetic enthusiasm. Storytellers and generators of a climate of creativity among employees

Source: Quintella (1994, p. 155).

).

Kotter (1992), in turn, presented six requirements for effective leadership:

(1)

Knowledge of the industry and your organisation (a. broad knowledge of the industry: market, competition, products, technology; b. broad knowledge of the company: key executives and their interests, the culture, the history, and the systems);

(2)

Relationships in the company and the sector (broad set of solid relationships in the company and in the industry);

(3)

Reputation and record of achievement (excellent reputation and convenient record of achievements in a wide range of activities);

(4)

Capabilities and skills (a. sharp mind (analytical ability, sufficiently strong common sense, judgment, aptitude for reasoning, and strategic and multi-dimensional thought); b. strong interpersonal skills: the ability to develop good working relationships quickly, empathy, ability to “sell”, sensitivity towards people and human nature);

(5)

Personal values (high integrity (widely values all people and groups));

(6)

Motivation (a. high energy level; b. strong propensity to lead: power and achievements must be supported by self-confidence).

After examining the works of several authors, we present the models of transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Researchers in the area of leadership (Burns 1978; Bass 1985, 1997, 1998; Avolio and Bass 2002; Adair 2003; Crawford et al. 2003; Armstrong 2012; Xenikou 2017) have classified the different models according to the type of interaction that exists between the leader and the other members of the group. Transactional leadership advocates the existence of a transaction between the leader and the members of the group, who accept the leader’s influence whenever they provide them with an advantage. Followers are motivated by the leader’s promises, rewards, and/or threats” (Bass 1997). The transformational leadership style invites the other members of the group to abandon their own interests for the benefit of the group’s, and therefore the organisation’s, interests (Gonçalves 2008; Góis 2011). In the 1980s, new ways of understanding leadership in organisations were developed. The leader is now seen as a sense manager of the organisation, the one who “…defines the organisational reality through the articulation between a vision (which is a reflection of the way he defines the organisation’s mission) and the values that serve as its purpose” (Costa et al. 2000, p. 22).

2.2. Transformational Leadership

We can consider that leadership aims to induce or persuade subordinates or followers to contribute and want the organisational goals for themselves, striving their utmost to make to happen (Jabbar and Hussin 2019). Thus, transformational leadership emerges as fundamental in this context (Marasinghe and Anusha 2018; Norena-Chavez et al. 2021). This model explains that leadership causes followers to change their needs, beliefs, and values. Crawford et al. (2003, p. 12) stated that “…a transformational leader acts by stimulating the whole organisation to move towards higher-order needs”. In this sense, Burns (1978, p. 425) stated that “…the motivation of the transformational leader is the personal development of the follower”. Bass and Avolio (1990) and other authors who have studied transformational leadership have stated that this leadership style can be an extension of transactional leadership, although transactional leaders cannot perform it transformationally. This transformational paradigm promotes placing high value on employees’ own personal growth as a tool for increasing organisational benefit (Crawford 1995).

The transformational leadership style prevails people’s motivations to exceed expectations and lead to higher performances (Jyoti and Bhau 2015; Bhargavi and Yaseen 2016; Al Khajeh 2018; Akparep et al. 2019; Choi 2021; Wang and Huang 2022). This leadership style means “…leadership exercised by leaders who introduce profound changes in society and in organisations, leaving indelible marks” (Rego 1997, p. 392). Burns (1978) distinguished between transactional leaders who improve existing action plans and transformational leaders who change strategies and actions, underlining the current need for an evolution of authoritative leadership towards mobilising and transformational leadership. This requires the leader to possess a combination of theoretical, technical, and methodological competencies grounded in management and leadership skills. In this leadership style, leaders act to fuse the focus on the vision and the mission. The leader uses motivating and challenging expectations and displays trust and respect for subordinates, seeking to reinforce the vision and mission through their actions. In the transformational leadership style, leaders provide an environment to employees that promotes the spirit of freedom to innovate and share experiences and achievements with others in the hope that the organisation will gain from this process (Bryant 2003).

According to Muchinsky (2004), this type of leader is not limited to exchanging information or making agreements with their followers but is concerned with achieving organisational results through the use of one or more components that underpin transformational leadership and enable the achievement of a state of well-being. This type of leadership is characterised by a vital personal component of the figure of the leader, as it motivates followers, introducing changes in their attitudes, and creating inspiration for the achievement of objectives based on values and ideals that interest the organisational environment (Prameswari et al. 2020). This leadership style has four components, as stated by Castanheira and Costa (2007): charisma, inspiration, respect for subordinates, and intellectual stimulation. For Heitor (2006), transformational leadership has four dimensions: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. In the first dimension, idealised influence (charisma), leaders are admired and respected, and their followers identify with the leaders. The leader shares risks with the followers and is consistent in his or her way of acting, namely in the respect for ethical principles and values. In inspirational motivation, through different forms, leaders motivate their followers by promoting individual and team spirit, with enthusiasm and optimism being always very present, i.e., the leader encourages his/her followers to strive towards an attractive future, appealing to the vision, using symbols to lead followers in their efforts, and modelling the type of behaviour desired by him/her, thus giving meaning to the effort of the workers (Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022). In the dimension of intellectual stimulation, leaders stimulate the effort of their followers to be creative, question all assumptions, and debate problems in order to find new solutions to frequent problems (Wang and Huang 2022). Additionally, considering individuals, leaders act as coaches; they pay attention to the needs of each individual to help them grow, and eventually, followers can quickly reach higher levels and greater potential, and the leader supports, encourages, and accompanies followers (Lan et al. 2019; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022).

A study by Cui et al. (2022) conducted in China based on a sample of 417 respondents concluded that transformational and transactional leadership styles have an impact on organisational learning and innovation performance. On the other hand, the study considered that organisational learning has a direct impact on innovation performance, being a mediator of the relationship between leadership styles and business innovation performance.

In turn, Wang and Huang (2022) found evidence that transformational leadership positively (negatively) moderated the relationship between control culture and innovation ability, whereas transactional leadership positively moderated the relationship between control culture and innovation ability. Findings from the Lan et al. (2019) study show that transformational leadership has a positive impact on external job satisfaction, whereas patriarchal leadership has a positive impact on internal job satisfaction. The authors highlight the importance of encouraging employees with positive and inspiring speeches, as well as with praise in order to promote satisfaction and interaction with colleagues. Training employee behaviour can create a sense of accomplishment with the job.

However, the results of the study by Gutu et al. (2022), developed in the IT&C industry in Romania, revealed that transformational leadership instruments lose importance and effectiveness in exclusively online work environments. Thus, transformational leadership tools (idealized influence attributes, idealized influence behaviour, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration) must be reformulated and adapted for the online work environment so that employees understand the actions and attitudes of leaders. As a result of this reformulation, it is possible to increase job performance and employee well-being and reduce turnover intention.

2.3. Transactional Leadership

For Castanheira and Costa (2007), this type of leadership style focuses on the existence of a system of rewards and punishments applied by the leader as a result of the fulfilment, or not, of contracted objectives. The transactional leader points out the behaviours to be adopted and the objectives to be achieved without influencing or motivating the employees to any great extent in order to achieve the desired goals (Mwesigwa et al. 2020). Transactional leadership emphasises a dichotomy between the leader as a superior and the follower as a dependent, based on a perspective of conformity with the organisation’s reality (Armstrong 2012; Silva and Mendis 2017; Mahfouza 2019). In contrast to transformational leadership, transactional leadership occurs when one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of exchanging valued things (economic, political, or psychological “things”, for example) (Kemunto et al. 2018).

The transactional leader directs and motivates their followers towards the objectives set by the organisation by clarifying the roles and the demands that fall to each employee according to each particular task (Silva and Mendis 2017; Mahfouza 2019), i.e., “…seeks only to make compatible and harmonise the objectives of those led, through simple exchange and negotiation of conflicts; incentives and status are exchanged for performance” (Ferreira et al. 1996, p. 253). In this leadership style, followers are led by the established reward system as well as the punishment system (Suprapti et al. 2020). In this way, the leader interacts with their followers so that they continue work and accomplish what they both agreed to and transacted for in order to achieve the organisation’s objectives. Burns (1978) contrasted transactional leadership with transformational leadership, as the latter bases its actions on the followers by appealing to the interest of each of its followers, whereas transactional leaders base their power on the authority that comes from their hierarchical position in the organisation (Kalsoom et al. 2018).

2.4. Laissez-Faire Leadership

This type of leadership is characterised by a certain apathy that the leader shows towards the organisation’s problems and strategic vision (Puni et al. 2014; Al Khajeh 2018). Its influence is more noticeable when problems get worse and require some type of intervention. However, non-leadership behaviours are also evident: “the leader does not show typical leadership behaviours, avoiding making decisions and abdicating his responsibility and authority” Castanheira and Costa (2007, p. 144). Leaders with the laissez-faire style avoid becoming involved in important matters and avoid making decisions. As Castanheira and Costa (2007, p. 149) stated, they “avoid getting involved in important matters and avoid making decisions, delay responding to urgent issues, wait for things to go wrong before acting, let problems drag on before taking any action”. With this type of leadership, it is not possible to find a work environment with defined goals because the leader does not take action plans and postpones making important decisions, ignoring their responsibilities (Puni et al. 2014; Giao and Hung 2018; Thanh and Quang 2022), contrary to the transformational and transactional leadership style types (Dantas 2013). The dimensions that characterise laissez-faire leadership are (Bass 1985; Bass and Avolio 2000; Bass and Riggio 2006): (a) management by passive exception—an aspect of laissez-faire leadership characterised by certain inactivity in the face of problematic situations on the part of leaders who only act when problems take on too severe a dimension—and (b) the absence of leadership behaviour.

2.5. Motivation, Communication and Reward Systems in Organisations

According to Fiorelli (2004), motivation is a force, an energy that propels us in the direction of something that arises from our inner needs. When this happens, people become more productive, act with greater satisfaction, and produce multiplying effects, so leaders must stimulate and motivate workers (Kozłowski 2020). In this sense, we can consider that motivation describes the force that initiates a behaviour and directs it towards a purpose whose result will respond satisfactorily to a particular need (Cunha et al. 2004; Zeng et al. 2022; Ross 2022).

For Chiavenato (1998), motivation is the desire to exert a certain level of effort to achieve certain organisational objectives and the ability to satisfy some individual needs. Motivation is related to three aspects: (a) the direction of behaviour or organisational objectives, (b) the strength or intensity of behaviour or effort, and (c) the duration and persistence of behaviour or individual needs.

Motivation is the process by which a set of reasons encourages, stimulates, or provokes a particular type of behaviour. Motivation is the process responsible for the intensity, direction, and persistence of a person’s efforts to make it possible to achieve a particular goal (Robbins 2004; Ross 2022). There are two orders of motives that influence the performance of the employees of any organisation, namely, and according to Maximiniano (2000):

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Internal motives: those that arise from the people themselves, such as aptitudes, interests, values, and skills of the person;

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External motives: those created by the situation or environment in which the person finds him/herself.

To better understand the concept of motivation and to be able to make the connection with leadership, we will now list and characterize some of the most essential theories on motivation.

Motivation has been widely studied by Maslow’s and Herzeberg’s theories (Cardoso 1997; Teixeira 2010). Maslow’s theory, also known as the hierarchy of basic needs, presents the needs in the form of a pyramid: (1) physiological—survival, food, and clothing; (2) security—protection and job stability; (3) social—acceptance, friendship, and feeling of belonging; (4) esteem—self-confidence, self-fulfilment, creativity, and fluctuating and complex self-development; (5) self-realization. Herzeberg’s theory divided the factors that alter the individual’s behaviour into two groups:

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Hygienic factors, extrinsic to the individual, comprising salary, benefits received, job security, and interpersonal relations at work. In the case of insufficiency, they would cause dissatisfaction, but if they were met, they would not awaken the individual’s motivation (the inner energy).

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The motivational factors intrinsic to the professional are represented by recognition, status, responsibility, the opportunity for recognition, the richness of work, and the presence of challenges. The absence of these factors, however, does not cause dissatisfaction.

From a manager’s perspective, a motivated person works hard, maintains the pace of hard work and has self-directed behaviour towards the critical goals. In the case of their employees’ organisations, the leader expects their followers to work as hard as possible and achieve a maximum level of production so that, in this way, there is a fair payment for their work (Lousã et al. 2004; Akparep et al. 2019; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022; Zeng et al. 2022; Ross 2022). For Afonso and Leal (2009), motivation is what moves people to act, think, and develop. Although motivation processes can be studied from the point of view of the brain and physiological mechanisms (Kim 2013), there is a large part of human motivation that is a function of socio-cultural variables that influence not only the actions that people perform but also how they feel when they act and the consequences of their actions (Vansteenkiste et al. 2020).

Understanding behavioural motivation requires knowledge of human needs (Chiavenato 1994; Kopsov 2021), which is why we previously presented the theories of Maslow and Herzberg. According to Chiavenato (1994), it has been found that all human behaviour is motivated. Motivation, in the psychological sense, is the persistent tension that leads an individual to some form of behaviour aimed at the satisfaction of one or more certain needs. Hence, there exists the motivational cycle. The motivational cycle can be explained thus: the human organism remains in a state of psychological equilibrium until a stimulus breaks it and creates a need (Billman 2020). This need causes a state of tension to replace the previous state of equilibrium. The tension leads to a behaviour or action to achieve some form of satisfaction with that need. If the need is satisfied, the organism will return to its initial state of equilibrium until another stimulus supervenes. All satisfaction is basically a release of tension, a tension discharge that allows a return to the previous equilibrium (Moccia et al. 2018).

We believe that motivation should be integrated into organisational culture as a stimulus practised daily in the relationships between the people involved in the process (Akparep et al. 2019; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022). There are cases in which companies use a motivation essentially related to the offer of financial or material benefits. Nevertheless, there are other types of benefits and rewards that manage to motivate employees (Cunha et al. 2004; Rose 2005; Ibrar and Khan 2015).

A study carried out by Košičiarová et al. (2021) concluded that individual leadership and motivation styles are different depending on the national specificities of each country and that their choices are left to the discretion of the managers of the companies themselves. The parent company (located in Italy) has minimal involvement in the decision-making process of its subsidiaries in foreign markets (Turkey, Czech Republic, and Germany), but they consult the parent company on the motivation proposals of their employees and only then implement them in the subsidiaries. So, the parent company has no intention of promoting and enforcing the Italian national culture. Instead, the parent company’s intent is based on respecting and exploiting the cultural differences of each country.

The findings of Cahyadi et al. (2022) found that leadership styles in the digital era have a positive impact on individual employee performance, resulting in greater involvement and commitment to the organisation. The authors posited that in the digital age, the combination of servant, shared, and empowering leadership styles are important for motivating and involving employees in the organisation, with evident gains in employee motivation and job performance.

2.6. Communication

The need to have employees committed, integrated, and informed makes communication an essential mechanism in the management of companies. Through the mechanisms of communication, it becomes possible to establish contacts and relationships that assist productive activity at all levels of management (Musheke and Phiri 2021). In this sense, understanding the importance of communication as an strategic and operational management instrument is a requirement for achieving performance and organisational efficiency (Hargie 2016). The involvement of employees in the whole organisational process is only achieved when there is a good capacity for interpersonal communication, becoming an indispensable condition for the excellent performance of the organisation (Hackman and Johnson 1991; Pelfrene et al. 2003; Szostek 2019; Çakıt et al. 2020; Davidescu et al. 2020). Through communication, we should be able to communicate the culture of the company, the values, the vision, and the missions that we intend to carry out. Communication processes should not be limited to issuing directives from top management to employees nor should it diminish the importance of their opinion on the organisation’s functioning (Hargie 2016).

Communication uses different communication channels, internal and external; therefore, we should define a communication pattern according to the profile and purposes of managers and employees (Palma 2008; Caetano 2013; Brandão 2014; Mishra et al. 2014). Communication may be established through centralised or decentralised communication networks, and the communication modes and supports to be used in the most diverse work situations should always be identified (Caetano 2013; Yan et al. 2021). In various contexts, we have formal communication situations, which are those that occur within a formal structure and typically occur in written form, and informal communication, which are all situations that occur independently of the formal structure and essentially occur in the oral form (Gara and La Porte 2020). Effective organisational communication comprises both formal and informal situations, which should be properly managed, planned, and controlled (Madureira 1990).

Communication has several functions. It is intended to be a tool for leadership, animation, and fostering internal dialogue because it allows exposing results, transmitting information, explaining a project or task, and transmitting new guidelines and decisions (Çakıt et al. 2020; Davidescu et al. 2020; Wang and Huang 2022). Fostering a culture of communication to stimulate collaboration, understanding, and commitment is the true purpose of communication (Mbhele and de Beer 2021; Lee and Kim 2022). For Westphalen (1992), messages disseminated within the organisation may be operational messages—transmission of information essential to the functioning of the organisation—or motivational messages—dissemination of information that may be of interest to employees. The quality of employee performance in any organisation is crucial. This fact leads to a need for organisations to take care of and plan communication and for it to be a tool for organisational control and promoting the performance and commitment of employees to an organisation (Yates 2006; Ndlovu et al. 2021).

Choi’s (2021) findings suggest that CEOs’ servant and authentic leadership styles have a positive and significant effect on employees’ mental health, whereas ethical leadership has a positive and significant effect on employees’ citizenship behaviour. This means that CEOs should show interest in addressing issues and complaints faced by members of the organisation and seek to develop their skills. CEOs should always remain humble and strive to work together based on conviction rather than obedience, representing an important factor for improving job performance.

2.7. Reward System

In most organisations, salary is the primary motivational component. The salary is the consideration in cash or equivalent paid by the employer to the employee as a function of the position he/she holds and the services he/she provides during a certain period of time (Chiavenato 2006). According to the same author, the salary may be paid directly or indirectly, i.e., the direct salary is the one perceived exclusively as payment for the service rendered in the position to which it refers. The indirect wage (indirect financial reward) is the wage resulting from the clauses of the collective bargaining agreement and the plan of benefits and social services offered by the organisation. In fact, the salary represents the main form of organisational reward, even though there are other benefits that are seen as forms of reward and, naturally, as systems that increase individual motivation (Leitão et al. 2022; Setiawan et al. 2022).

Benefits are a complement to salaries that are seen as indirect salaries and may be represented by the inclusion of products and/or services that the employee should pay for if used (Rose 2005), such as, for example, hospital assistance agreements, meal tickets, and partnerships with other organisations, among a set of other possibilities. Following the establishment of this type of reward, organisations quickly realized the possibility of making this system more efficient, thus creating the flexible benefits model, where employees are allowed to choose among several options according to their own needs (Cahyadi et al. 2022; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022).

Training, personal development, and career development are directly related to an organisation’s vision of the future (Rodriguez and Walters 2017). That is, increasingly well-trained and trained employees will, in theory, be better people and better employees (Chiavenato 2006). Investing in employees’ training and personal development means promoting a change in behaviour and qualifications and hence increases the probability of having more motivated employees and a better organisation (Coccia and Igor 2018; Ashtalkoska et al. 2022; Zeng et al. 2022). The motivation process should constantly be monitored and evaluated so that it is continuous, modified, improved, and generates positive results (Rose 2005).

The results of the Kankisingi and Dhliwayo (2022) study showed that the rewards given to intrapreneurs by SMEs positively and significantly influenced the innovation performance, in particular the “promotions within the organization” and the “monetary bonus rewards”. Therefore, they concluded that rewards are an important tool for facilitating intrapreneurial contributions of crowdsourcing to innovation performance.

2.8. Corporate Performance Monitoring and Management

The idea of corporate performance monitoring and management has been, similar to strategic reasoning, associated with large companies supported by consultancies and supported by complex and expensive information systems and methodologies. However, as Simões (2001) stated, small companies also need to manage based on more sophisticated indicators and evaluation models that are in line with the globalisation of markets and the turbulence of the environment. Small- and medium-sized companies are starting to become aware of performance management’s importance for their future success and survival (Felizardo et al. 2017).

According to Flamholtz (1996), companies must influence employees’ behaviour to become involved in the companies’ objectives. The objective of a control system is not to control the individual’s behaviour but to influence people to take actions and decisions that, in their judgement, will be consonant with the objectives of the organisation (Charterina et al. 2018; Sonmez Cakir and Adiguzel 2020). However, in small- and medium-sized companies, given their small size and other conditions associated with these organisations, each employee’s contribution is decisive for the creation of value and success of the company (Felizardo et al. 2017). The existence of a performance monitoring and evaluation system is the path to follow to guide and motivate employees, defining what is to be achieved from the outset, monitoring results, and influencing employees through concrete actions to achieve the desired objectives (Felizardo et al. 2017; Ahmed et al. 2022).

According to Jordan et al. (2008), a performance evaluation system should take into account the following aspects:

-

Align individual initiatives to organisational ones, linking the organisation’s performance to the whole team that makes up the organisation;

-

Select only what is critical for the organisation, focusing the attention of the collaborators on a reduced and important number of indicators to achieve the intended results;

-

Have an integrated view of the results and activities performed, looking at the whole rather than the individual;

-

Confront the achieved with the planned using metrics consistent with the integrative vision;

-

To focus efforts on “value generators”.

Performance evaluation should be concerned with measuring the value generated for the company in multiple aspects, such as business, products, markets, customers, projects, activities, and responsibility centres, among others (Jordan et al. 2008; Felizardo et al. 2017; Ahmed et al. 2022). These authors advocate the evaluation of results by segments and consideration of all assets in a logic of contribution. The use of both financial and non-financial metrics enables more balanced management, balancing the short-term interests of managers with the company’s long-term interests.

3. Methodology

The context of this research was the participation of the authors in a training course at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro in Benguela (Angola) under an inter-institutional protocol with CESPU-Angola. This research work can be classified as exploratory, because it proposes to explore the characteristics of the population studied in addition to analysing the distribution of characteristics and assessing the causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables. This follows the definition of an as one that has the study of the characteristics and relationships between variables of a phenomenon as its main objective (Gil 1999; Pestana and Gageiro 2014; Malhotra 2019).

This research was conducted between December 2019 to April 2020 through the application of a questionnaire to a sample of managers and senior staff of various public and private organisations in the province of Benguela (Angola), to collect and analyse their perception regarding the developed leadership styles, motivation, communication, and reward systems on the impact on the performance of organisations. This is field research because the empirical investigation is carried out in the place where the phenomenon occurs and has the elements to explain the functioning of the phenomenon (Vergara 2000, p. 47).

Studying these management practices in Angola is a challenge that emerges in view of the new challenges of competitiveness that develop from the globalized world, where large international companies present a well-developed “know-how”, and management practices are clear and efficient.

3.1. Research Problem and Hypotheses

Based on the assumptions presented above, the main objective of this research study was to identify the leadership styles that stand out in companies in Benguela province and their impact on the performance of organisations. On this basis, the following specific objectives emerged:

-

Evaluate the style and impact of leadership styles on the performance of companies;

-

Evaluate the impact of communication, motivation, and reward systems on company performance and employee satisfaction;

-

Analyse the perception of managers regarding their leadership role in achieving the organisation’s objectives;

-

Evaluate the perception of leaders about the impact of the reward system on company and employee behaviour;

-

Identify the factors that most contribute to the motivation of employees currently and in the future;

-

Evaluate the perception of leaders regarding the performance of the company as compared to its competitors.

3.2. Sample

The population of the study is the managers, senior executives, and executives of public and private companies of small and medium size in the province of Benguela in Angola, which was constituted by indication of the local higher education institution and partner in training actions (CESPU-Angola), where many of the elements of the sample were former students of the institution. All members of this population were sent a letter introducing the study and the corresponding questionnaire. From this population, a non-probabilistic sample was constituted for convenience formed by 227 subjects surveyed with varied profiles related to the sectors of education, hospitality, accounting, industry, health, agriculture, public administration, and human resources.

The sample is made up of 173 Angolan and 54 Portuguese subjects, of which 154 are female and 73 are male, aged between 20 and 63. Around 56% of the sample have less than five years of service in the job, with a homogenous distribution for all the other time intervals up to 30 years of service. From the point of view of functions and percentages present in the sample, we have teachers/educators (26.9%), section heads (8.4%), purchasing technicians (9.7%), senior technicians (25.6%), administrative officers (14.1%), and labour inspectors (15.4%).

3.3. Data Collection Tools

Within the scope of the research, the questionnaire technique was used as a data collection instrument (Pestana and Gageiro 2014; Malhotra 2019) which considers independent variables such as gender, age, academic qualifications, nationality, type of company, length of service in the position and in the company, and the number of workers.

The dependent variables are those that are the object of measurement, those considered here include the people management programme considered strategic for the companies (13 items); leadership styles (transformational, transactional, laissez-faire) (10 items); impact of the leadership style (extra effort, effectiveness, satisfaction) (7 items); evaluation of the leader’s function (8 items); impact on the organisation’s activities (commercial impact, worker satisfaction, customer satisfaction) (7 items); impact of the reward system (8 items); factors responsible for the lack of skilled labour in the organisation (6 items); motivation factors (10 items); the importance of communication (6 items); impact of the organisation’s activities (7 items); company performance compared to competitors (8 items) (see

Table 2. Dimensions, categories and items used in the questionnaire.

Dimensions	Categories	Items
People management programme		13 items
Leadership styles	Transformational Leadership	4 items
	Transactional leadership	3 items
	Laissez-faire leadership	3 items
Impact of the leadership style	Extra effort	3 items
	Effectiveness	3 items
	Satisfaction	1 item
Evaluation of the leader’s function		8 items
Impact of the reward system		8 items
Factors responsible for the lack of qualified labour in the organisation		6 items
Motivation factors	In the present	10 items
	In the future
Importance of communication	At present	6 items
	In the future
Impact of the organisation’s activities	Business impact
	Employee satisfaction	3 items
	Customer satisfaction	2 items
Performance of the company in relation to its competitors		2 items

Source: Authors.

). Part of the scale designated as the “Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire” proposed by Bass and Avolio (2000) was used to measure the leadership style.

4. Analysis and Discussion of Results

Data analysis was performed. First, a univariate data analysis using descriptive statistics (absolute and relative frequencies, mean, and standard deviation). Then, we assessed the internal consistency of the research instrument through Cronbach’s alpha and factorial analysis through the principal component method (PCA). Subsequently, we resort to a bivariate analysis of data to identify whether there are differences between variables (t-test and ANOVA). Finally, multivariate data analysis was performed by determining correlations between variables.

4.1. Analysis of Absolute and Relative Frequencies

As presented in

Table 3. People management activities or programmes considered strategic.

	Totally Disagree		Disagree		Neither Agree Nor Disagree		Agree		Totally Agree		M	SD
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Performance evaluation	4	1.8					185	81.5	37	16.3	4.13	0.538
People development					4	1.8	66	29.1	156	68.7	4.73	0.475
Competence management					7	3.1	182	80.2	37	16.3	4.15	0.430
Policy mix					188	82.8	35	15.4	4	1.8	3.12	0.367
Remuneration					25	11.0	34	15.0	167	73.6	4.68	0.669
Training					41	18.1	55	24.2	130	57.3	4.43	0.794
Leadership			4	1.8	28	12.3	35	15.4	159	70.0	4.52	0.779
Career planning, succession					128	56.4	60	26.4	38	1.,7	3.49	0.673
Climate research and management	4	1.8	154	67.8	26	11.5	13	5.7	13	5.7	2.42	0.880
Recruitment and selection			37	16.3	121	53.3	60	2.4	8	3.5	3.11	0.725
Participation in results					24	10.6	188	8.8	14	6.2	3.95	0.418
Goal plan			21	9.3	36	15.9	7	3.1	161	70.9	4.32	1.082
Relationship between people			21	9.3	43	18.9			161	70.9	4.29	1.107

, respondents consider that the people management programs considered strategic by their organisations are, firstly, the development of people (M = 4.73; SD = 0.475), followed by remuneration (M = 4.68; SD = 0.669), leadership (M = 4.52; SD = 0.779), training (M = 4.43; SD = 0.794), and the goals plan (M = 4.32; SD = 1.082). The items relationships between people (M = 4.32; SD = 0.082), the management of competencies (M = 4.15; SD = 0.430), and performance evaluation (M = 4.13; SD = 0.538) also stand out. However, it can be seen that remuneration was the item that obtained the highest score on the total agreement, as 167 respondents (73.6%) stated that this is a programme considered strategic in the organisations where they work. The items with lower values include research and management of the organisational climate (M = 2.41; SD = 0.880), the recruitment and selection of managers (M = 3.11; SD = 0.725), and the set of policies (M = 3.12; SD = 0.367).

Concerning transformational leadership style (

Table 4. Perceptions of the transformational leadership style.

Transformational Leadership	Totally Disagree		Disagree		Neither Agree Nor Disagree		Agree		Totally Agree		M	SD
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
I act in such a way that I gain the respect of others	3	1.3	2	0.9	9	4.0	45	19.8	168	74.0	4.64	0.724
I generate pride by their side	6	2.6	2	0.9	27	11.9	42	18.5	149	65.6	4.44	0.928
I am optimistic about the future	3	1.3	4	1–8	14	6.2	142	62.6	63	27.8	4.14	0.716
Suggest new alternatives, ways of carrying out and completing activities			2	0.9	125	55.1	68	30.0	31	13.7	3.57	0.735

), it can be seen that 168 respondents (74%) completely agree with the preposition “I act in such a way that I get the respect of others” (M = 4.64; SD = 0.724), followed by 149 respondents (65.6%) who completely agree with the statement “I generate pride for them being by my side” (M = 4.44; SD = 0.928). The item “I suggest new alternatives, ways to carry out and complete the activities” obtained the lowest value (M = 3.57; SD = 0.735), with the majority of the respondents (125) opting for the answer “neither agree nor disagree”.

Taking into account the global results (

Table 5. Average leadership styles.

	Mean	SD
Transformational leadership	4.19	0.775
Transactional leadership	3.47	0.711
Laissez-faire leadership	1.17	0.433

), it appears that the dominant style of management is the “transformational leader” (M = 4.19; SD = 0.775), followed by the “transactional leader” (M = 3.47; SD = 0.711) and, finally, the “laissez-faire leader” (M = 1.17; SD = 0.433).

In summary, as shown in the following table (

Table 6. Average leadership scores.

Leadership Results	Mean	SD
Satisfaction	4.06	0.554
Extra Effort	4.03	0.599
Effectiveness	4.24	0.537

), respondents consider that effectiveness (M = 4.24) is the result of leadership most practised by leaders, followed by satisfaction (M = 4.03) and, finally, extra effort (M = 4.06)

As shown in

Table 7. Perception of the impact of the reward system on the organisation.

Recommendations	Totally Disagree		Disagree		Neither Agree Nor Disagree		Agree		Totally Agree		M	SD
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
It will increase motivation					5	2.2	121	53.3	101	44.5	4.42	0.538
Will increase job satisfaction					5	2.2	154	67.8	67	29.5	4.27	0.494
Reduces staff turnover			30	13.2	38	16.7	158	69.6			3.57	0.716
Increases product and service quality					14	6.2	64	28.2	148	65.2	4.59	0.606
Increases customer satisfaction					42	18.5	36	15.9	148	65.2	4.47	0.790
Increases productivity					10	4.4	30	13.2	186	81.9	4.78	0.512
Increasing profitability					44	19.4	33	14.5	149	65.6	4.46	0.801
You will have no impact	215	94.7			7	3.1	4	1.8			1.12	0.521

, the vast majority of respondents agreed (215 respondents) that the reward system has an impact on the organisation (M = 1.12; SD = 0.521). Thus, the areas of most significant impact of the reward system on the organisation are increased productivity (M = 4.78; SD = 0.512), improved quality (M = 4.59; SD = 0.606), and increased customer satisfaction (M = 4.47; SD = 0.790).

The perception of respondents regarding the reasons that contribute to the lack of skilled labour in organisations (

Table 8. Perception of the reasons that contribute to the lack of qualified labour in organisations.

	Totally Disagree		Disagree		Neither Agree Nor Disagree		Agree		Totally Agree		M	DP
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Image of the sector	91	40.1	123	54.2	6	2.6	6	2.6			1.68	0.658
Low salaries			2	0.9	3	1.3	98	43.2	123	54.2	4.51	0.575
Scarce opportunities for progression					2	0.9	106	46.7	118	52.0	4.51	0.518
Inadequate training			30	13.2	1	55.1	41	18.1	30	13.2	3.31	0.866
Lack of service culture			30	13.2			159	70.0	37	16.3	3.90	0.829
Competition from other sectors with more competitive salaries					8	3.5	35	15.4	184	81.1	4.77	0.497

) is competition and other sectors with better pay (M = 4.77; SD = 0.497), low pay practised by companies (M = 4.51; SD = 0.575), and scarce opportunities for advancement (M = 4.51; SD = 0.518). The image of the sector obtained the disagreement of the respondents, with 123 (54.2%) stating that they disagree with this reason (M = 1.68; SD = 0.658). In addition, lower values were obtained for “inadequate training” (M = 3.31; SD = 0.866) and lack of service culture (M = 3.90; SD = 0.829).

Respondents consider that the areas with the most significant impact in terms of employee motivation (

Table 9. Areas with the most significant impact in terms of motivation for employees.

	Currently		In the Future
	F	%	F	%
Remunerations	218	96.0	5	2.2
Qualifications	65	28.6	158	69.6
Delegation of responsibilities to employees	158	69.6	65	28.6
Job security	158	69.6	65	28.6
Incentive programmes	98	43.2	126	55.5
Career development opportunities	128	56.4	95	41.9
Recognition	188	82.8	35	15.4
Work environment	216	95.2	7	3.1
Training	68	30.0	125	55.1
Technology	118	52.0	105	46.3

) are currently remuneration (96%), the work environment (95.2%), and recognition (82.8%). In the future, respondents point to qualifications (69.6%), incentive programmes (55.5%), and training (55.1%).

In turn, the respondents consider that the importance of communication is relatively high both now and in the future, namely with regard to business performance (84.1% and 92.5%), employee commitment (80.1% and 88.1%), and professional performance (78.4% and 88.9%) (

Table 10. Importance of communication within the company now and in the future.

	Currently		In the future
	F	%	F	%
Professional performance	178	78.4	202	88.9
Leadership	152	67.0	180	79.2
Commitment of the workers	182	80.1	200	88.1
Transmission of guidelines	152	67.0	153	67.4
Business performance	191	84.1	210	92.5
Work environment	153	67.4	160	70.4

). It is worth noting that the items that scored highest in the present were also the highest-scoring items for the importance of communication in the future.

The evaluation of the company’s performance compared to the average of the companies in the sector is positive (

Table 11. Evaluation of the company’s performance compared to the average of the companies in the sector.

	Much Lower than Average		Lower than Average		Equal to Average		Higher than Average		Much Higher than Average		M	SD
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Quality of products and/or services					37	16.3	159	70.0	30	13.2	3.97	0.545
Quality of management/leadership					40	17.6	68	30.0	118	52.0	4.35	0.763
Quality of the collaborators			3	1.3	40	17.6	33	14.5	151	66.5	4.46	0.828
Social Responsibility					37	16.3	41	18.1	148	65.2	4.49	0.762
Notoriety					125	55.1	68	30.0	33	14.5	3.59	0.732
Brand image			2	0.9	124	54.6	37	16.3	63	27.8	3.71	0.885
Market share			2	0.9	158	69.6	66	29.1	66	29.1	3.28	0.471
Sales volume			2	0.9	157	69.2	67	29.5			3.29	0.473

) and is most significant at the level of social responsibility (M = 4.49; SD = 0.762), the quality of employees (M = 4.46; SD = 0.828), and the quality of management (M = 4.35; 0.763). The factors with the lowest scores were market share (M = 3.28; SD = 0.471) and sales volume (M = 3.29; SD = 0.473).

4.2. Reliability and Validity Analysis of the Data Collection Instrument

In order to assess the reliability of the various dimensions under analysis, Cronbach’s alpha value was calculated, in which the index under analysis estimates the extent to which the uniformity of the various items contributes to the unweighted sum of the instrument, which is known in the literature as “analysis of the internal consistency of the scale”. For the authors, an instrument has appropriate reliability when Cronbach’s alpha assumes a value of 0.7, although a value of 0.6 is acceptable in exploratory studies (Pestana and Gageiro 2014). In this study, the analysis was based on the set of statements and prepositions that defined the theoretical constructs, notably the latent and multidimensional concepts: leadership styles (transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and laissez-faire leadership); results orientation (extra effort and effectiveness); and impact on organisational activities (commercial impact, employee satisfaction, and customer satisfaction). With regard to the set of items comprising the different dimensions, Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.879, which is considered very good (Pestana and Gageiro 2014). In order to assess the convergent validity of the scale (in relation to the previously mentioned dimensions), a factor analysis through the PCA method (principal component analysis) was used.

4.3. Leadership Styles

Taking into account that we used partially the scale of Bass and Avolio (1994), which integrated the three leadership styles (transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and laissez-faire leadership) and the consequences of the styles (extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction), we initially opted to perform a global analysis and, subsequently, an analysis by each dimension. Thus, the reliability analysis for the totality of Bass and Avolio’s (1994) scale was 0.803 (

Table 12. Reliability of the dimension “leadership styles”.

Alpha = 0.803	Correlation of the Item with the Total	Cronbach’s Alpha If the Item Is Deleted
I act in such a way that I gain the respect of others	0.411	0.794
I generate pride in their side	0.513	0.785
I am optimistic about the future	0.742	0.754
I Suggest new alternatives, ways of carrying out and completing activities	0.281	0.809
I express satisfaction when others meet my expectations	0.291	0.805
Focus my attention on dealing with mistakes, complaints and failures	0.785	0.748
I do not interfere with problems until they become serious	0.669	0.762
Avoid getting involved when essential issues arise	0.437	0.792
I am absent when I am needed	0.395	0.795
I avoid making decisions	0.411	0.804

), which can therefore be considered a good result (Pestana and Gageiro 2014).

As shown in the previous table (

Table 13. Factor analysis—total variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance
1	3.957	39.565	39.565	3.957	39.565
2	3.800	37.997	77.562	3.800	37.997
3	1.003	9.735	87.297	0.995	9.975
4	0.505	5.048	92.345
5	0.318	3.175	95.520
6	0.165	1.648	97.168
7	0.105	1.048	98.216
8	0.067	0.671	98.887
9	0.065	0.645	99.532
10	0.047	0.468	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.723
			Approx. chi-square		2586.196
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		45
			Sig.		0.000

), the deletion of the items “I suggest new alternatives, ways to perform and complete activities”, “I express satisfaction when others meet expectations”, and “I avoid making decisions” slightly increased Cronbach’s alpha value (0.809, 0.805, and 0.804), but given the reduced impact on the final score, we decided to keep all items. The correlations of each item with the total correlation varied between 0.281 (I suggest new alternatives and ways to perform and complete the activities) and 0.785 (I focus my attention on dealing with mistakes, complaints and failures), thus presenting, in general, positive values, although not very high. From the factor analysis, through the principal component extraction method (PCA), we retained three components that explain 87.3% of the total variance (Table 12). The first factor explains 39.565, the second 37.997, and the third 9.735. Despite the existence of values lower than 0.5 in the correlation matrix, they do not cause problems in data interpretation because there is a correlation between the variables (Bartlett with sig. = 0.000) and the results obtained reflect a very good factor analysis (KMO = 0.723).

Therefore, managers’ perception of the leadership styles that have the highest frequencies—the transformational style, followed by the transactional style, and finally the laissez-faire style—is confirmed in this sample. These results confirm the theory of Avolio and Bass (1995), who stated that transformational leadership is the only leadership style that provides followers with higher performance, seeking to raise the awareness of the group and the organisation, promoting the evolution of people and aligning individual expectations with those of the organisation. According to the authors, this leadership style is capable of modifying the organisational culture itself, creating a collective feeling.

4.4. Result Orientation

The results orientation was composed of three dimensions (extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction). However, only the dimensions “extra effort” and “effectiveness” included more than one factor (item) and, therefore, it was possible to perform a reliability and factor analysis. The dimension “extra effort” contained three items that had obtained an internal consistency of α = 0.586 (insufficient), and the exclusion of items 2 (I raise the desire of others to succeed) and 3 (I increase the desire of others to work with greater dedication) allowed an improvement in the internal consistency to 0.664 and 0.662, respectively, making the value satisfactory (

Table 14. Reliability of the dimension “extra effort”.

Alpha = 0.586 Improved Alpha = 0.664	Correlation of the Item with the Total	Cronbach’s Alpha If the Item Is Deleted
I get others to do more than expected	0.723	0.116
I increase the desire of others to succeed	0.273	0.664
I increase the willingness of others to work with greater dedication	0.260	0.662

); therefore, we chose to eliminate the item that increased Cronbach’s alpha the most (item 2). The correlations of each item with the total correlation ranged between 0.723 (item 1) and 0.273 (item 2).

From the factor analysis, one component is retained through the principal component extraction method (PCA) that explains 75.045% of the total variance (

Table 15. Factor analysis—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	1.501	75.045	75.045	1.501	75.045
2	0.499	24.955	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.500
			Approx. chi-square		64.563
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		1
			Sig.		0.000

).

Despite the existence of values lower than 0.5 in the correlation matrix, they do not cause problems in data interpretation because there is a correlation between the variables (Bartlett with sig. = 0.000), and the results that were obtained reflect a satisfactory factor analysis (KMO = 0.500).

The dimension “effectiveness” contained three items that obtain an internal consistency of α = 0.596, and the exclusion of item 2 (I am effective in meeting the organisation’s needs) allowed for an improvement in the internal consistency to 0.836, a value considered good (

Table 16. Reliability of the dimension “effectiveness”.

Alpha = 0.596 Improved Alpha = 0.836	Correlation of the Item with the Total	Cronbach’s Alpha If the Item Is Deleted
I am effective at meeting the needs of others in relation to work	0.540	0.261
I am effective at meeting the needs of the organisation	0.039	0.836
I lead a group that is effective	0.747	−0.177

). The correlations of each item with the total correlation ranged between 0.39 (item 2) and 0.747 (item 3).

From the factor analysis (FCA), a component that explains 85.963% of the total variance was retained (

Table 17. Factor analysis of “effectiveness”—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	1.719	85.963	85.963	1.719	85.963
2	0.281	14.037	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.500
			Approx. chi-square		162.801
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		1
			Sig.		0.000

). Despite the existence of values below 0.5 in the correlation matrix, they do not cause problems in data interpretation because there is a correlation between the variables (Bartlett’s with sig. = 0.000), and the results that were obtained reflect a satisfactory factor analysis (KMO = 0.500).

4.5. Impact of the Organisation’s Activities

Three dimensions were considered for the assessment of the impact of the organisation’s activities: commercial impact (three items), employee satisfaction (two items) and customer satisfaction (two items).

The result of Cronbach’s alpha for the totality of the seven items (impact of activities) was 0.745 (

Table 18. Reliability of the dimension “impact activities”.

Alpha = 0.745 Improved Alpha = 0.829	Correlation of the Item with the Total	Cronbach’s Alpha If the Item Is Deleted
This organisation has higher sales than our local competitors	0.582	0.696
This organisation has a significant impact on the local economy	0.203	0.829
This organisation has higher profits than others	0.170	0.761
The employees of this organisation are satisfied with their work	0.065	0.766
The employees are dedicated to the organisation	0.873	0.580
Customers of this organisation are satisfied with the service they receive	0.920	0.621
Customers of this organisation receive very friendly service from employees	0.913	0.562

), with the elimination of the item “This organisation has a significant impact on the local economy” improving the result to 0.829 (considered Good).

The correlations of each item with the total correlation vary between 0.203 (This organisation has a significant impact on the local economy) and 0.920 (Customers of this organisation are satisfied with the service they receive), presenting, therefore, and in general, positive and relatively high values. The factor analysis (FFA) revealed the existence of three factors that explain 89.171% (

Table 19. Factor analysis of impact—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	3.556	50.802	50.802	3.556	50.802
2	1.661	23.727	74.529	1.661	23.727
3	1.025	14.642	89.171	1.025	14.642
4	0.497	7.099	96.270
5	0.214	3.062	99.332
6	0.041	0.583	99.915
7	0.006	0.085	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.510
			Approx. chi-square		1943.600
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		21
			Sig.		0.000

) of the total variance (Bartlett with sig. = 0.000; KMO = 0.510).

“Business impact” integrated three items that obtained an internal consistency of α = 0.661, and the exclusion of item 2 (This organisation has a significant impact on the local economy) allowed for an improvement in the internal consistency to α = 0.747 (

Table 20. Reliability of the “business impact” dimension.

Alpha = 0.661 Improved Alpha = 0.747	Correlation of the Item with the Total	Cronbach’s Alpha If the Item Is Deleted
This organisation has higher sales than our local competitors	0.094	−2.642
This organisation has a significant impact on the local economy	−0.514	0.747
This organisation has higher profits than others	−0.043	−1.081

). The correlations of each item with the total correlation range between 0.380 (item 1) and 0.831 (item 2).

From the factorial analysis (PCA), one component was retained (

Table 21. Factor analysis of “commercial impact”—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	2.062	68.738	68.738	2.062	68.738
2	0.648	21.584	90.322
3	0.290	9.678	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.602
			Approx. chi-square		211.457
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		3
			Sig.		0.000

), which explains 68.738% of the total variance (Bartlett with sig = 0.000; KMO = 0, 602).

In turn, the dimension “employee satisfaction” consisted of two factors with a low and insufficient Cronbach’s alpha (0.039) and low correlations between items (0.06). Factor analysis revealed the existence of a factor that explains 52.985% of the total variance (Bartlett with sig. = 0.372; KMO = 0.500) (

Table 22. Factor analysis of “employee satisfaction”—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	1.060	52.985	52.985	1.060	52.985
2	0.940	47.015	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.500
			Approx. chi-square		0.798
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		1
			Sig.		0.372

).

The impact of activities on “customer satisfaction” presented very good reliability (alpha = 0.92), and the item correction obtained a total of 0.890. The factor analysis revealed the existence of a factor that explains 94.507% (

Table 23. Factor analysis of “customer satisfaction”—totals of variance explained.

Component	Initial Own Values			Sums of Squared Loadings Extraction
	Total	% of Variance	% Cumulative	Total	% of Variance
1	1.890	94.507	94.507	1.890	94.507
2	0.110	5.493	100.000
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy.					0.500
			Approx. chi-square		351.317
Bartlett’s test of sphericity			df		1
			Sig.		0.000

) of the total variance (Bartlett with sig. = 0.000; KMO = 0.500).

4.6. Correlations

For the transformational leadership style, all correlations were positive and significant (

Table 24. Correlations.

	Extra Effort	Effectiveness	Satisfaction	Business Impact	Employee Satisfaction	Customer Satisfaction
Transformational Leadership	0.319 **	0.190 **	0.727 **	0.454 **	0.527 **	0.469 **
	0.000	0.004	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Transactional leadership	0.136 *	0.054	0.565 **	−0.332 **	0.012	−0.117
	0.042	0.418	0.000	0.000	0.862	0.078
Laissez-faire leadership	−0.260 **	0.035	0.381 **	−0.015	0.292 **	0.141 *
	0.000	0.596	0.000	0.819	0.000	0.034

**, correlation is significant at level 0.01 (2 extremities). *, correlation is significant at level 0.05 (2 extremities). Source: own study.

), extra effort (Pearson correlation = 0.319; p = 0.000), effectiveness (Pearson correlation = 0.190; p = 0.004), satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.727; p = 0.000), business impact (Pearson correlation = 0.454; p = 0.000), impact on employee satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.527; p = 0.000), and impact on customer satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.469; p = 0.000).

The transactional leadership style had two positive and significant correlations, one with “extra effort” (Pearson correlation = 0.136; p = 0.042) and another with satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.565; p = 0.000). In turn, it obtained a significant but negative correction with the commercial impact (Pearson correlation = −0.332; p = 0.000).

The laissez-fair leadership style has a negative and significant correlation with extra effort (Pearson correlation = −0.260; p = 0.000) and positive and significant correlations with satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.381; p = 0.000), impact on employee satisfaction employees (Pearson correlation = 0.292; p = 0.000), and impact on customer satisfaction (Pearson correlation = 0.141; p = 0.034).

5. Discussion of the Results

The research results show that the perception of most of the managers interviewed is that they develop transformational leadership styles, followed by the transactional style. With much lower values, they consider that they rarely or never use laissez-faire leadership. At this level, the conclusions drawn in this study are in line with the work of Avolio and Bass (1995), as well as with the studies identified in the literature (Gonçalves 2008; Góis 2011; Dantas 2013; Akparep et al. 2019; Lan et al. 2019; Cahyadi et al. 2022; Cui et al. 2022), where the transformational style is dominant. Although the previously identified studies were conducted in Portugal (Gonçalves 2008; Góis 2011; Dantas 2013) and the research contexts were different (health, education, and industry), the results show that the leaders of Angolan companies are aware that the transformational leadership style allows stimulating and inspiring an organisation’s employees to achieve better results, helping them to develop in the collective interest of everyone and the organisation (Bass and Riggio 2006).

The results of the perceived leadership analyses show that effectiveness (M = 4.24), job satisfaction (M = 4.06), and extra effort (M = 4.03) are valued by the questioned supervisors, with mean values very close to and above 4, which means that the leaders of this sample have positive results regarding their leadership style. Thus, and as evidenced in the literature (Avolio and Bass 1995; Gonçalves 2008; Góis 2011; Dantas 2013), transformational leaders achieve higher levels of personal effectiveness and productivity among employees, as well as promote positive experiences and satisfaction, group unity, and collective spirit throughout the organisation (Košičiarová et al. 2021; Cahyadi et al. 2022; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022). Therefore, the results prove that an incentive and rewards programme has a strong impact on the organisation, particularly on increasing productivity, improving quality, and increasing customer satisfaction (Akparep et al. 2019; Choi 2021; Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022; Zeng et al. 2022; Ross 2022). In fact, motivated employees become more involved with the organisation. Their work and effort are recognised and rewarded, making them more productive and more involved with their duties, achieving quality and customer satisfaction gains (Kankisingi and Dhliwayo 2022). In the same line of thought, the respondents consider that remuneration, the work environment, and recognition are the factors that currently contribute the most to employees’ motivation (Çakıt et al. 2020; Davidescu et al. 2020; Leitão et al. 2022; Setiawan et al. 2022). However, they will value qualifications, incentive programmes, and training in the future (Rodriguez and Walters 2017; Coccia and Igor 2018; Ashtalkoska et al. 2022; Zeng et al. 2022). In terms of incentives, they state that these programmes will involve the distribution of profits and the distribution of shares in the future, which is curious, as most of the respondents work in public companies. In this sense, it is not surprising that respondents consider that an organisation’s activities have a positive and significant impact on the commercial level and employee and customer satisfaction. Compared to the average of companies in the sector, the majority of respondents consider, on the whole, that the performance of the company where they work is superior to the average of its rivals, particularly in terms of social responsibility, the quality of employees, and the quality of management.

6. Conclusions

Small- and medium-sized companies have some management specificities that should be considered to better understand the characteristics and practices in terms of people management, leadership style, motivation, communication, and reward systems. Due to their smaller sizes, these companies are more exposed to the dynamics, changes, and competitiveness of the markets, and their management is conditioned by certain variables that do not always depend on the manager’s own will.

Each employee’s contribution is crucial for the creation of value and success for the company. The existence of a monitoring system that controls both results and performance evaluation (financial and non-financial indicators) is essential for guiding and motivating employees, defining from the outset what is to be achieved, controlling the results, and influencing employees through concrete actions to achieve the desired objectives. This research was based on a major question: What is the managers’ perception of their leadership style? What is the impact of leadership style on the performance of organisations? Thus, the objectives were defined with consideration to the starting question. It is now important to evaluate the answers and determine whether the defined objectives were achieved. In this way, according to the objectives defined, we present the conclusions of the study according to the dimensions defined:

Objectives Defined	Conclusions
1. Identify the people management programs used by the companies studied	According to the respondents, people management programs are strategic tools for organisations, particularly with regard to personal development, compensation, leadership, and training.
2. Identify the dominant leadership style in the studied small- and medium-sized companies.	The results show that the perception of most managers and supervisors is that they most commonly develop transformational leadership styles, followed by the transactional style. With much lower values, they consider that they rarely or never use laissez-faire leadership.
3. Determine whether there are differences between the leadership styles concerning gender, age, marital status, qualifications, and length of service in the company.	Significant differences were found between the leadership styles and the respondents’ gender, age, marital status, qualifications and professional experience.
4. Evaluate the influence of professional situation—experience and training—on the adopted leadership style.	The data show differences in the experience (time on the job) and academic training of the respondents.
5. Evaluate the impact of leadership style on the performance of organisations (commercial performance, customer satisfaction, and employee satisfaction).	Considering the data collected, it can be seen that leadership styles are reflected at the commercial level and in the satisfaction of both employees and customers.
6. Analyse supervisors’ perceptions of their leadership functions in the pursuit of the organisation’s objectives.	Leaders consider that their leadership functions are crucial in pursuing the organisation’s objectives, particularly in terms of quality and the satisfaction of employees and customers.
7. Assess the perception of leaders of the impact of the rewards system on company behaviour.	The perception of managers is that the rewards system in place in organisations impacts the behaviour of organisations as well as the motivation of employees and their productivity.
8. Identify the factors contributing to the shortage of skilled labour in organisations.	From the respondents’ perspective, the reasons that contribute to the lack of skilled labour in organisations are the competition between companies with better salaries and the lack of opportunities for advancement in companies.
9. Identify the factors that most contribute, currently and in the future, to the motivation of employees.	The results show that currently, remuneration, work environment, and recognition are the factors that most contribute to the motivation of employees in organisations. For the future, the results point to qualifications, incentive programs, and training.
10. Identify the importance of communication within the company now and in the future.	Most of the respondents consider communication to be important in achieving business performance, people’s commitment, and professional performance. These two vectors of analysis are simultaneously the highest scoring in both the present and future by a good part of the respondents.
11. Evaluate the perception of leaders regarding the company’s performance compared to its competitors.	The recognised data show that from the perspective of the respondents, the organisation’s activities have a positive and significant impact on the commercial level and employee and customer satisfaction. Furthermore, compared to the average of the companies in the sector, the majority of respondents consider that the performance of the company where they work is higher than the average of its rivals, especially in terms of social responsibility, the quality of employees, and the quality of management.

7. Limitations and Future Research

Although the object of study is focused on investigations at a global scale, no studies related to the problems of business performance, leadership, communication, and motivation in Angola were found.

Based on the literature review, the results obtained and the limitations presented suggest some clues or recommendations for future research, of which we highlight the following:

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Use a larger sample size;

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Include organisations of different sizes, various sectors of activity, and from other provinces of Angola in the study;

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Additionally, evaluate the subordinates, seeking to determine their perception on the leadership styles of the managers and make comparisons with the perspective of the leaders;

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Integrate more foreign companies;

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Include leaders of other nationalities;

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Perform a longitudinal study because the analysed constructs are dynamic and conditions may change as a result of changes in organisational policies and the constraints or opportunities of the contextual and transactional environment;

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Resort to mixed methodologies, simultaneously using qualitative and quantitative methodologies, such as interviews and questionnaires, to explore some issues in depth and triangulate the results, or even perform case studies in particular sectors of activity or companies.

It should also be noted that the results obtained here cannot be generalised to the entire universe, because the study focused on Benguela province and only on the management of some organisations, not having assessed the employees. Therefore, we must continue to investigate and learn about the situation in order to have a more complete and accurate picture of the current situation. All of those suggestions can be performed to optimize the variables under study and improve the business performance of Angolan companies, both public and private.