“Oastea Domnului” (The Lord’s Army): Contexts and Origins of a Moral and Spiritual Renewal Movement in Twentieth-Century Romania

Abstract

This article presents the context and genesis of the Lord’s Army (Oastea Domnului), a religious movement of moral and spiritual renewal in Romania at the beginning of the twentieth century. The text outlines the missionary context within the Romanian Orthodox Church in the early twentieth century, as well as the influences that made themselves felt in the Romanian area both from beyond the country’s borders and from within, taking into account the new socio-political realities that followed the World War I. The context in which the Lord’s Army arose is presented in a nuanced and comprehensive manner, going beyond the formal framework of the evangelical influences that were more strongly experienced in Transylvania. The article also examines the genesis of the movement, closely connected to the Orthodox priest Iosif Trifa, whose missionary profile is briefly outlined in order to illuminate the manner in which he articulated the missionary vision that eventually materialised in a new spiritual movement, one that gained numerous adherents in Romania and continues to exist to this day. Furthermore, the article presents the spiritual, moral, and missionary directions through which the Lord’s Army established itself in Romanian society as a new movement of moral revitalisation in the first half of the twentieth century.

1. Introduction

This study aims to analyze the context of the emergence and the early forms of manifestation of the Oastea Domnului (Lord’s Army) movement within the social, moral, and religious landscape of post-First World War Romania, with particular emphasis on its relationship with the Romanian Orthodox Church and with renewal movements in the Eastern European Orthodox world. The central thesis advanced is that the Lord’s Army may be characterized as a movement of moral and spiritual renewal, articulated through a specific form of religious and social apostolate, which sought to respond, by its own means, to the pastoral challenges of the interwar period. In order to achieve this objective, the research pursues, on the one hand, a reconstruction of the historical and institutional framework in which the movement emerged, and, on the other hand, an analysis of its religious practices, founding discourse, and the involvement of the laity. From a methodological perspective, the study is based on a critical analysis of primary sources (programmatic texts, articles, and testimonies) and the relevant scholarly literature, employing tools from religious history, historical sociology, and comparative theology in order to highlight the specificity and significance of the movement within the Romanian Orthodox context.

From a historical standpoint, the analysis is limited to the interwar period, more precisely to the first fifteen years following the emergence of this religious movement. Subsequently, the Oastea Domnului would go through at least three further significant stages in its development: the period immediately following the death of its leader, Iosif Trifa, and the turmoil of the World War II; the movement’s activity during the communist regime, when it was banned; and the official resumption of its missionary and public activity after 1990 up to the present day.

With regard to the state of research and the existing bibliography on this topic, it should be noted that the majority of works dedicated to the Oastea Domnului tend to offer largely monographic presentations, often lacking contextual detail and interpretative depth. Within Romanian scholarship, many studies are authored by members of the movement itself and adopt an overwhelmingly affirmative approach, with little critical distance. Another group of works is marked by a reserved or cautious attitude, placing the Oastea Domnului within the sphere of heterodox movements or even associating it with sectarian tendencies within the Romanian Orthodox Church. Other studies, while exhibiting greater scholarly rigor, draw close parallels between the Lord’s Army and neo-Protestant evangelical movements. Moreover, most of these works do not focus on a specific historical phase of the movement’s development, but rather address it as a whole. From our perspective, however, a periodized assessment is necessary in order to achieve a more objective understanding of the genesis and evolution of a movement that continues to function to this day. Through the present study, we aim to contribute to the theological and historical literature by emphasizing the context of the movement’s emergence and the manner in which it spread relatively rapidly among Orthodox believers during the interwar period.

The early decades of the twentieth century marked a period of profound social, political, and moral-spiritual transformations in Romania. Following the Great Union of 1918, Romanian society entered a phase of national consolidation, which, however, was accompanied by significant tensions, including social inequalities, political instability, and accelerated processes of modernisation and secularisation that began to reshape traditional value structures (Basciani and Brăgea 2025). Within this dynamic interwar context, the moral landscape of society was characterised by a pronounced tension between the traditional Christian ethic and the growing influence of materialism, liberal individualism, and urban modernity, on the one hand; the impact of evangelical movements (Modoran 2013, pp. 91–101) brought to Romania by emigrants returning to Transylvania, on the other hand. This period thus reflects the complex interplay between enduring spiritual norms and emerging cultural and ideological currents, highlighting the challenges Romanian society faces in negotiating continuity and change.

Moral life, once grounded in the liturgical rhythm of the ecclesial community—particularly in rural areas—and anchored in the traditional markers of Romanian Orthodox spirituality, began to show signs of weakening. Phenomena such as alcoholism, moral decay, corruption, and religious indifference were frequently noted in pastoral writings (Gan 1928) and contemporary social analyses. Although the Romanian Orthodox Church remained a fundamental institution of national identity, it was increasingly challenged to respond to the new realities of a society in transition, a society in which faith risked being reduced to mere cultural tradition, devoid of inner moral force (Zub 1999, pp. 11–12). In this context, in 1923, the Oastea Domnului (The Lord’s Army) was founded by the priest Iosif Trifa in Sibiu. Conceived as a lay renewal movement within the Romanian Orthodox Church, Oastea Domnului aimed to restore the moral integrity and spiritual discipline of the faithful through repentance, moral vigilance, prayer, and active participation in church life (Trifa 2011). Over time, the movement established itself as a paradigm of moral renewal—a spiritual mobilisation calling believers to rediscover the evangelical ethos of life and to resist the moral and spiritual fragmentation characteristic of the modern world.

2. The Socio-Religious and Moral-Spiritual Context in Early Twentieth-Century Romania

2.1. The Mission of the Orthodox Church in Early Twentieth-Century Transylvania: Contexts and Challenges

At the beginning of the twentieth century, from a spiritual perspective, Romanian society can best be understood through the lens of rural life as a whole, given that over 80% of the population lived in villages (Ministerul Agriculturii și Domeniilor 1914). The cities were merely small urban centres inhabited by a limited segment of the population. At the same time, in Transylvania, the fortified towns were predominantly populated by cohabiting nationalities (Hungarians, Saxons, and Szeklers), who enjoyed numerous privileges compared to the Romanian population (Fazakas and Kisteleki 2023, pp. 237–99; Pop and Bolovan 2016).

Although the Romanian rural population organised its communal life around the Church, there were nevertheless many shortcomings caused by the complex historical circumstances faced by the Orthodox Church, particularly in Transylvania. First, following the phenomenon of the Union with Rome (Uniate movement), the Orthodox Church in Transylvania began its process of reorganisation only at the beginning of the nineteenth century, facing numerous obstacles and a range of restrictions regarding its pastoral activity (Groza 2018, pp. 33–34, 37–45). Second, the preparation of the clergy was hindered by the socio-political context of the time, as there was a pressing need for solid theological and pastoral formation before ordination and for continuous education afterwards, to equip priests for missionary and pastoral service amid the challenges of contemporary society. A pastoral-administrative and educational-missionary organisation within the Orthodox Church in Transylvania was established only during the tenure of Saint Metropolitan Andrei Șaguna; however, its effects were felt over time (Schneider 2008; Abrudan 2023). Third, although the Orthodox population of Transylvania lived according to the Church’s liturgical rhythm and strictly observed religious traditions, perhaps more outwardly than inwardly, it nevertheless bore the burden of frustrations and social pressures that often led to moral lapses and vices, especially in the absence of a strong spiritual and moral authority capable of extending a helping hand through guidance, pastoral care, and inner healing.

Even though there exists a metaphorical and conceptual perspective on the traditional Romanian village as the repository of Orthodox tradition and spirituality (Moldovan 2018, pp. 393–405), or even a philosophical view on its identity within the Romanian cultural space (Blaga 1980, pp. 25–264), we cannot overlook the shortcomings of the past life of the Romanian village. The moral health of the traditional village was always the concern of the Church and the community’s pastor, establishing a prophetic image of the zealous, missionary priest that was embedded in the collective mentality and expressed in monographic and literary writings. From this perspective, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the priest was assigned an increasingly prominent role in contributing to the proper order of the community he shepherded, particularly from a moral and spiritual standpoint (Botoi 2019, pp. 88–94). Nevertheless, his responsibilities often extended beyond this pastoral sphere, encompassing educational, social, administrative, and even political activities.

Thus, following the achievement of the Great Union of 1918 (Popescu 2018), the Romanian Orthodox Church entered an era of institutional freedom, but also one of increased responsibility for the national and moral-spiritual cohesion of Romanian society. In a newly unified state, the Church was called to become not merely a confessional entity, but a factor of stability and social health for the faithful—an institution capable of reaffirming Christian values, sustaining national identity, and promoting morality in everyday life. There was a pressing need for the Church to expand and refine its mission of literacy, catechesis, and social involvement, taking into account the new context and the modern realities of the state and society (Lupaş 1933). Thus, the Church was summoned to serve as a vector of national unity and moral renewal, urging its clergy and communities to respond to the challenges of the time through adaptive pastoral and missionary activity.

Whereas in early twentieth-century Romania (Wallachia and Moldavia) the Orthodox Church already played a significant role in social life and exercised an important influence in the areas mentioned above, the situation of the Orthodox Church in Transylvania requires a more nuanced consideration. Until the Great Union of 1918 (the creation of Greater Romania), Transylvania was under the authority of a foreign and non-Orthodox political regime, which imposed limitations on the Church’s involvement in public life. The participation of the Orthodox Church in administrative matters was almost nonexistent, while its involvement in education was largely confined to the sphere of confessional schooling. Similar limitations can be observed in other areas as well. Furthermore, it must be noted that in Transylvania, alongside the Orthodox Church, there also existed the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (United with Rome), which had a significant number of adherents among the Romanian population. Consequently, the need for an enhanced involvement of the Orthodox Church in social life after the First World War in Transylvania, as well as the necessity of a coherent program to guide such engagement, became particularly evident.

A primary pastoral and missionary requirement of the Romanian Orthodox Church during the interwar period concerned the intensification of catechetical instruction and the deepening of believers’ religious formation, to overcome ritual formalism and foster a conscious and personal appropriation of faith. Although the Romanian people had traditionally remained faithful to the Church and deeply attached to its values, doctrinal literacy was relatively low, necessitating the promotion of a clearer understanding of Orthodox teaching and the encouragement of a personal and responsible experience of spiritual and moral life. At the same time, there was an increasing need to emphasise the social and ethical dimensions of Christianity, as Romanian society faced numerous moral and cultural challenges associated with modernity. In this context, the Church was called to reaffirm its prophetic and moral role in the public sphere, to provide clear models of Christian conduct, and to exercise its spiritual authority to guide society toward the values of goodness, justice, and solidarity.

In another respect, it became increasingly evident that the greater involvement of both clergy and laity in the Church’s missionary activity was essential. On the one hand, priests were called to assume an active role in pastoral and educational work, adapting their ministry to the new social and cultural realities of the time. This required a solid, up-to-date theological education capable of responding to the challenges of modernity and the emerging forms of secularisation. On the other hand, the active participation of laypeople in parish life needed to be encouraged and valued by fostering an awareness that every believer is called to contribute to the building up of the ecclesial community. In this sense, the Church was invited to rediscover the synergic and communal dimension of the Christian mission, in which ordained ministry and lay service complement one another in the pursuit of the common good and the living witness of faith.

2.2. The Socio-Religious Context of Moral Revitalisation Efforts in the Romanian Area During the First Half of the Twentieth Century

In analysing the broader socio-religious context of the emergence of moral and spiritual renewal movements in early twentieth-century Romania, it is necessary to consider a range of historical, social, and ecclesial factors that shaped both the dynamics of church life and the need for an inner renewal of faith. In our view, such an evaluation requires an integrative view of Romanian society and its religious realities, correlated with similar phenomena that had previously appeared across Europe.

First, there is a clear analogy between the early movements of moral renewal in Western Europe and those that later emerged within the Romanian context. Among the former, one may note the pietist movements that developed within Protestantism and spread across Germany, France, and England, generating a profound spiritual awakening centred on a return to Scripture, repentance, and the moral struggle against social vices. The earliest forms of Pietism appeared in the seventeenth century with German Lutheran Pietism (Jung 2005), which subsequently expanded into various European regions (Gäbler 2000), followed by English Methodism (Dreyer 1999), the “Réveil protestant francophone” (Daumas 1997; Lagny 1958), and the “Great Awakening” in the United States (Ahlstrom 1972). These revivalist movements represented a genuine spiritual ferment within modern Europe and exerted an indirect influence on the religious consciousness of Eastern Europe as well.

The Oastea Domnului movement cannot be defined as a pietist movement in the classical and strictly confessional sense of the term; however, it does display certain pietist-type features, reinterpreted and adapted to the Orthodox ecclesial context within a project of internal moral and pastoral renewal. The movement emphasizes a personal and living faith, spiritual renewal, and a profound relationship with Jesus Christ, understood as the “finding and proclaiming of Jesus Christ crucified” (Dorz 1998, p. 18). From a historical-religious and sociological perspective, the Lord’s Army exhibits characteristics comparable to Western Pietism, including a strong emphasis on personal conversion and moral transformation, insistence on the reading of Scripture and its communal interpretation, active lay participation in religious life, and the use of extra-liturgical religious hymns. Many of the principles articulated by the founder of the pietist movement, Philipp Jakob Spener, can be identified to a considerable extent in the modes of expression of Oastea Domnului (Spener 1964, pp. 87–103). These parallels cannot be fully enumerated here nor examined in detail, as they would require a separate and more extensive study.

Although no direct historical links can be established between these Western evangelical awakenings and the Romanian Oastea Domnului movement, one can nonetheless identify indirect influences and shared orientations, particularly in the emphasis on personal conversion, moral renewal, and a lived, experiential faith. These forms of indirect influence can be understood through interactions with Evangelical movements, as well as through a process of inspiration and motivation derived from the reading of spiritual literature originating in Western contexts (Clark 2021, pp. 145, 161). A careful and thorough examination of the entirety of Father Iosif Trifa’s writings could lead to more rigorously substantiated conclusions. Scholarly literature even notes spiritual parallels between the English theologian and revivalist John Wesley and the Romanian Orthodox priest Iosif Trifa, founder of Oastea Domnului: “What Wesley was for the Anglican Church, Iosif Trifa was for the Orthodox Church of Romania” (Brânzei 1998, p. 122). Such a comparison underscores the universal need for spiritual renewal in the modern era. It illustrates how Christian moral ideals were contextually reinterpreted within the particular framework of each ecclesial and cultural tradition.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, a significant religious movement emerged in England under the name The Salvation Army, which rapidly spread worldwide at the beginning of the twentieth century (The Salvation Army 2010). Within the broader context of nineteenth- and twentieth-century evangelical movements, The Salvation Army placed particular emphasis on the charitable dimension of Christianity, promoting active social involvement and providing both moral and material assistance to those facing the hardships of life. Although no direct influence can be established between The Salvation Army and the Romanian movement Oastea Domnului, founded by priest Iosif Trifa, one researcher has observed notable parallels of a moral and ideological nature (Brânzei 1998, p. 122). These correspondences are particularly evident in the shared focus on moral renewal, active faith, and Christian responsibility toward one’s neighbour, values that reveal a meaningful spiritual convergence between Western movements of religious revival and those developed independently within the Eastern Orthodox context.

The emergence of the Oastea Domnului movement must be understood within the broader framework of spiritual and moral renewal that characterised the Orthodox Churches of Eastern Europe during the modern era, an era to which these Churches were called to adapt both theologically and pastorally.

“The modern world has been dominated by the West. Its ideas (rationalism, popular sovereignty, secularity, nationalism, capitalism, and socialism) all demanded responses from Orthodox populations and from Orthodox churches and clergy. Sometimes those responses came from within the resources of Orthodoxy itself, but more often they were adaptations to stimuli from without: literacy and the need for vernacular Bibles and liturgies; rising national consciousness; the inclusion of Orthodox populations in the Habsburg Empire; and the populist appeal of Protestant evangelical movements”.

(Pearse 2017, p. 2)

This historical and ecclesial context gave rise to movements of spiritual and moral renewal across most Orthodox countries in Eastern Europe: in Russia and Ukraine (White 2017, pp. 23–45; Inikova 2017, pp. 47–65; Shkarovskiy 2017, pp. 67–76; Zhuk 2017, pp. 77–102), in Serbia (Aleksov 2017, pp. 105–36; Radić and Milovanović 2017, pp. 137–72; Končarević 2017, pp. 173–89), in Greece (Logotheti 2017, pp. 285–302), and in Bulgaria (Goncharova 2017, pp. 303–22). Among these initiatives, the Romanian Orthodox context developed a distinctive form of lay spiritual revival, Oastea Domnului (Constantineanu 2017, pp. 231–60), which emerged as a response to the moral and pastoral challenges faced by the Church in the early twentieth century.

In his analysis of the context in which the Oastea Domnului movement emerged, Constantineanu refers to the “rediscovery of Scripture within the Romanian Orthodox Church” (Constantineanu 2017, p. 232). He highlights the activity of Dumitru Cornilescu (1891–1975), Tudor Popescu (1882–1963), and subsequently Iosif Trifa (1888–1938), emphasising the biblical foundations of this new movement, which, in his view, shares numerous theological elements with the Evangelical neo-Protestant movements (Constantineanu 2017, pp. 242–49). It is indeed true that such elements can be easily identified in the theology and missionary work of Oastea Domnului; however, the context of its emergence cannot be reduced solely to these similarities. Moreover, despite the evident parallels, no direct connection can be established between the neo-Protestant denominations and the foundation of Oastea Domnului, nor can any personal links be identified between its founder, Iosif Trifa, and Evangelical representatives or missionaries.

During his pastoral ministry in a rural community, Trifa observed the moral conduct and lifestyle of neo-Protestants. However, there is no record of any significant dogmatic polemics. On the contrary, he displayed an attitude that sought to encourage his Orthodox parishioners to reflect on the morally irreproachable behaviour of these groups—particularly their renunciation of vices—and to strive to become doers of the Word of God and authentic practitioners of the Orthodox faith. Trifa himself recalls such an experience:

“When the first sectarian appeared in my rural parish, I ran, full of zeal, to the gendarmerie, indirectly letting the people understand that they should take up the stick against the erring man. But, in response to my fervor, one of the village elders calmly said to me:—This man does no harm, Father! He does not curse, does not get drunk, does not smoke, does not fight with anyone... we are the worse ones... It would be good if we behaved like him! The elder’s answer struck me like a kind of scalding. His reply told me that the fight against the sectarians should be sought elsewhere. For years that answer pursued and reproached me, until it led to the founding of the Oastea Domnului”.

(Trifa 2011, p. 238)

In the Transylvanian context, the presence of heterodox confessions was by no means new, given the centuries-long coexistence of Romanians with Roman Catholics and Reformed believers. However, these confessions in Transylvania possessed a strong ethnic substratum in addition to their confessional identity, and proselytising activity often encountered the ethnic barrier—Romanians identifying themselves with Orthodoxy, which had preserved their national matrix. With the advent of neo-Protestant ideas, however—bearing a fresh message addressed to the individual rather than to the community as a whole—Evangelical proselytism began to gain ground among the Romanian population. The context and the favourable factors that contributed to the spread of neo-Protestantism in Romania were diverse (Modoran 2013, pp. 91–101). They prompted the Orthodox Church to take a public stance through its representatives and certain cultural and political elites of the time.

Contrary to the predominantly critical—and at times even hostile—attitude of many toward the Evangelical movements, Iosif Trifa proposed, in our view, the use of Evangelical missionary methods within the Orthodox Church itself, as a means of revitalising the spiritual and moral life of believers (Constantineanu 2017, pp. 242–43). This approach naturally gave rise to the perception of a neo-Protestant influence within the activity of Oastea Domnului. The ideological and religious landscape of the first half of the twentieth century was further enriched by intellectual and ideological movements advocating moral renewal, such as the Gândirea (“Thought”) review and the “Gândirist current” (Vrabie 1940, pp. 17–68), represented by authors such as Nae Ionescu and Nichifor Crainic. These thinkers argued for an “active Orthodoxy” and for the moral and spiritual reconstruction of the Romanian nation, emphasising the organic link between Orthodoxy and Romanian identity.

Likewise, the moral and spiritual reform of the Romanian state was supported by leading intellectuals such as Dimitrie Gusti (Gusti 1919, pp. 547–77; Schifirneț 2018, pp. 135–68), Simion Mehedinți (Mehedinți 1995), Nicolae Iorga (Popa 2021, pp. 52–59), and Onisifor Ghibu (Ghibu 1923), all of whom regarded faith as an indispensable component of national cohesion and identity. It is also worth noting other renewal movements that emerged within the Orthodox Church, initiated by individuals deeply committed to ecclesial life. These initiatives did not seek to create a new form of worship nor to generate a distinct spiritual direction; instead, they constituted effective and contextually adapted forms of organisation and Christian expression, addressing specific segments of the Orthodox public, such as the Association of Romanian Orthodox Christian Students (ASCOR), the Orthodox Brotherhoods, and the Society of Orthodox Women. Within this socio-religious context—characterised by major transformations and by the coexistence of multiple spiritual and cultural currents in the public sphere, originating both from other religious and cultural traditions and from within the nation itself as expressions of a desire for renewal and adaptation, including at the ecclesial level—the Oastea Domnului—movement found the most favorable ground for its emergence and development.

3. Priest Iosif Trifa and the Genesis of the Oastea Domnului Movement Within the Orthodox Church in Transylvania

3.1. A Biographical and Missionary Outline of Priest Iosif Trifa, the Founder of the “Oastea Domnului” Movement

Iosif Trifa was born on 3 March 1888, in the village of Certege, Turda County, as the fourth of six children born to Dumitru and Ana Trifa. His childhood was profoundly marked by the early death of his mother, to whom he was deeply attached. According to Romanian biographical sources and later memorial accounts, his mother’s sincere faith exerted a decisive influence on his spiritual formation, instilling in him the desire to dedicate his life to the service of God. A symbolic and often-recounted moment in his youth is the gift of a Psalter, an event that would later acquire prophetic significance for his entire vocation (Velescu 1998, p. 39; Dorz 1998, p. 23).

“You, my dear child, said his mother on her deathbed, handing him her inseparable Psalter, you will be a child of God and His servant. I see on your face the Sign that He has chosen you to be His own. Keep your mother’s Psalter! From it, learn to love the Lord and to pray to Him. I am going to Him now and no longer need it. But you must cherish it more than any treasure in this world, for in it will be your salvation and the salvation of many others through you”.

(Dorz 1998, p. 24)

Contemporary testimonies and subsequent historiographical evaluations portray Trifa as a priest with a pronounced prophetic profile, perceived as having a special mission among his people, to bring many back to faith through a renewed evangelical consciousness. This early formative experience thus acquires the value of an initiating vocation, prefiguring the destiny of a priest who would become one of the most influential figures of Orthodox missionary renewal in early twentieth-century Romania. Throughout his pastoral activity, Trifa was animated by an ardent desire to spread the Word of God among the Romanian people, revealing a deep love for Holy Scripture. His mission aimed not only at preaching the Gospel but also at facilitating the people’s access to the Bible through interpretation and dissemination in a clear, accessible language, thereby encouraging personal and responsible reading of Scripture as a path toward moral and spiritual renewal within the community.

“A Psalter in one’s home, at the level of the year 1888, was considered a great blessing. The Psalter itself formed, and continues to form, the foundation of the Church’s services, as the warp supports the weaving of the cloth. The spiritual formation of young Iosif thus took place in the early hours of his life, through the psalms of Matins, which his mother, Anuța, would read to her child until the day when he, whom she so deeply wished to see as a priest, would be vested in all the consecrated garments of the Divine Liturgy”.

(Roncea 1999, p. 4)

In the Romanian Orthodox tradition, Holy Scripture has always occupied an important place through its use in liturgical worship, which is why it was among the first books to be translated and printed in the Romanian lands (Carebia 1995, pp. 141–52). In Orthodoxy, the Bible has never been—and is not—separated from the Church in its broader sense, nor from Holy Tradition (Florovsky 2016), as it is received through an interpretative framework grounded in the perspective of the Church Fathers. This does not mean that the reading of Scripture is not regarded in the Orthodox Church as a spiritual exercise and a recommended practice for the faithful; rather, an Orthodox understanding of lectio divina entails certain particularities that distinguish it from Catholic and Protestant approaches (Breck 2003, pp. 110–28; Bianchi 2011, pp. 123–58). From our perspective, however, the impetus of the Oastea Domnului movement toward the reading and interpretation of Scripture did not fully conform to this authentic Orthodox framework for several reasons, among which may be mentioned the transfer of biblical reading from the liturgical setting of the Church to separate gatherings and the relative neglect of patristic interpretations, with only minor exceptions. During the same historical period in which the Oastea Domnului movement emerged, interest in the Word of God was by no means diminished, as clergy and theologians consistently encouraged the reading of Scripture, albeit within the spirit and parameters of Orthodox tradition.

Iosif Trifa began his formal education at the primary school in his native village, Certege (1895–1899), and continued his studies for four years at the Gymnasium in Brad. Between 1903 and 1907, he attended the Romanian High School “Samuil Vulcan” in Beiuș, an institution renowned for shaping Transylvania’s intellectual elite. His higher education was completed at the Theological Institute in Sibiu (1907–1910), where he distinguished himself through collaborations with several periodicals such as Tribuna (Arad) and Conservatorul (Bucharest), revealing a marked inclination toward journalism and the use of the written word in promoting Christian and national values (Gogan 2008, pp. 13–20). Upon graduation, he received the “Certificate of Qualification” no. 4047 (22 June 1910), signed by Metropolitan Ioan Mețianu, and the “Teaching Decree” no. 9191 (13 August 1910), which authorised him to serve as a teacher in Vidra de Sus. In the autumn of the same year, he married Iulia Iancu, a descendant of the family of Avram Iancu. On 24 April 1911, he was elected parish priest in Vidra de Sus and was ordained on 15 July by Metropolitan Ioan Mețianu.

Parallel to his pastoral ministry, Trifa developed an intense journalistic activity, publishing theological, social, and moral essays in numerous newspapers and reviews, including Telegraful Român, Revista Teologică, Foaia Poporului, Renașterea Română, Tribuna, and Românul (Mihoc 2023, pp. 4–6). His family life was marked by profound tragedy: during the Spanish flu epidemic, he lost his wife and three of his children, remaining a widower with his three-year-old son, Tit. In this period of suffering, he published his first book, Spre Canaan (Toward Canaan, Arad, 1920), a collection of meditations reflecting his growing interest in religious writing and moral reflection (For further biographical information, see Gogan 2008, pp. 19–50).

Trifa’s publishing activity soon attracted the attention of significant ecclesiastical and academic figures, such as the historian Ioan Lupaș and Metropolitan Nicolae Bălan (Velescu 1998, p. 77), who offered him opportunities for collaboration and theological advancement. In 1921, he settled in Sibiu, where he was appointed spiritual advisor of the Theological Academy, and from 1 January 1922, became editor of the weekly Lumina Satelor (The Light of the Villages). From this position, he initiated a broad missionary endeavour aimed at the spiritual renewal of Romanian society (Dorz 1998, p. 40 sqq). Through Lumina Satelor, Trifa sought not only to educate rural readers but also to promote a life of moral and spiritual discipline, calling believers to repentance and to abandon sin, particularly blasphemy and drunkenness. Those who responded to this call became members of the movement he called Oastea Domnului (The Lord’s Army), which, in its early years, attracted tens of thousands of adherents and emerged as one of the most significant movements of religious renewal in interwar Romania.

From the very beginning of his pastoral and journalistic activity, Iosif Trifa enjoyed the direct support of Metropolitan Nicolae Bălan, who discerned his missionary potential and his exceptional ability to communicate the evangelical message to the faithful. The cooperation between the two was further strengthened in 1925, when Father Trifa participated in a pilgrimage to the Holy Land organised by the Metropolitan, together with more than 160 believers. This spiritual experience profoundly shaped his inner life, reinforcing his commitment to the mission of moral and religious renewal. The growing demand for his religious publications eventually led, in November 1929, to the acquisition of a modern printing press from Leipzig, which became operational on 2 December of the same year (Gogan 2008, pp. 27–29).

Over time, Father Trifa’s intense activity elicited divergent reactions: admiration and enthusiasm from the faithful and close collaborators, as well as suspicion, jealousy, and opposition from certain clerical circles. In 1930, during the reorganisation of the editorial board of Lumina Satelor and the appearance of its supplement Oastea Domnului, Metropolitan Bălan initiated a plan to merge Lumina Satelor with Libertatea, a newspaper from Orăștie edited by Archpriest Ioan Moța. Although Trifa formally agreed to the proposal, his deteriorating health and growing concern about possible political implications—given the Moța family’s ties to right-wing movements—led him to distance himself from the project increasingly. This attitude strained his relationship with Metropolitan Bălan and ultimately led to his dismissal as a missionary priest.

From this point onward, the biography of the founder of Oastea Domnului was marked by both physical and moral suffering. Subjected to seven surgical operations, pressured to relinquish ownership of his printing press, and accused of failing to comply with the organisational statutes of his movement, Father Trifa was defrocked in February 1935, a sentence later confirmed by the Holy Synod in 1937. These events unfolded within the turbulent socio-political context of the late 1930s, without a sufficiently nuanced evaluation of the circumstances and motivations on both sides—those of Father Trifa and those of Metropolitan Bălan. Beyond this socio-historical and ecclesiastical context, the defrocking of Father Trifa is assessed differently depending on the specific confessional perspective; for this reason, the present study does not attempt to analyze the complexity of this case. Nevertheless, recognising the disproportionate nature of the sanctions imposed, the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church, in its session of 28 September 1990, formally rehabilitated Father Iosif Trifa’s memory (Biroul de presă și comunicații al Patriarhiei Române 1990, p. 7).

After enduring years of illness and physical suffering, Iosif Trifa passed away on 12 February 1938, exhausted by pain and disheartened by the misunderstandings that had overshadowed his missionary work. His death marked the end of an era, but also the beginning of posthumous recognition of a prophetic figure in interwar Romanian Orthodoxy, whose spiritual legacy continues to inspire members of The Lord’s Army association to this day.

3.2. The Role of Father Iosif Trifa in the Emergence and Development of the “Oastea Domnului” Movement in Interwar Romania

The success of the Oastea Domnului movement and the popularity of Father Iosif Trifa were mainly due to the emergence of the weekly newspaper Lumina Satelor, which became the principal medium for disseminating his missionary message among the Romanian people. The actual genesis of the movement can be traced to the appeal—or call to renewal—that Trifa publicly addressed to the faithful through the first issue of Lumina Satelor in 1923. The night marking the transition from 1922 to 1923 proved to be a decisive spiritual turning point for Trifa (Dorz 1998, pp. 63–66). That night, he experienced what he later described as a profound inner calling to devote all his strength and understanding to proclaiming Jesus Christ and to leading people back to a life of faith by renouncing their daily vices.

According to contemporary accounts, this transformative moment occurred in his modest room in Sibiu, as he listened from his window to the blasphemies and immoral revelry of those celebrating New Year’s Eve—behaviours fueled mainly by excessive drinking. Moved by both compassion and indignation, Trifa turned to prayer and, in that moment of intense spiritual concentration, experienced what later Oastea Domnului memorial literature would describe as a mystical encounter (Dorz 1998, pp. 64–66). In this vision, Christ Himself is said to have commanded him to write a call to repentance addressed to all people at the dawn of the New Year, a call that would soon become the movement’s founding manifesto (Trifa 1923, p. 1).

The article’s text begins with the observation that, on New Year’s Day, people tend to celebrate in drunkenness, using indecent language and behaving in a manner unbecoming of Christians. Through such conduct, the passage from one year to another brings no moral or spiritual improvement; on the contrary, as Father Iosif Trifa notes, it keeps people enslaved to the same sinful and pagan customs, which he identifies as the “work of the Devil”. Trifa asserts that two major sins—drunkenness and blasphemy—so characteristic of Romanians (Hălăștuan 2025; Rotar 2007, 2008), “corrupt the soul and destroy the Christian way of life” (Trifa 1923, p. 1). To encourage people to abandon these vices, he published a “Decision” urging his readers to take concrete action. He wrote:

“All those who wish and decide to enter the struggle to remove blasphemy and drunkenness from their lives shall sign this Decision. Once signed, cut the Decision out of the newspaper and place it upon your wall—or better yet, in your heart—so that you may keep it with you throughout the year. At the end of the year, send it here, so that we may see how many have been able to persevere in the good fight for the defeat of Satan and the salvation of our souls”.

(Trifa 1923, p. 1)

Further on, the Appeal—signed by Iosif Trifa under his initials I.T.—concludes with a motivational exhortation intended to inspire the reader to act:

“Reader! Before the Decision below stands a little angel who prays. This angel is your guardian angel, who asks you to sign the Decision and to enlist in the army of those who have resolved themselves to Christ the Savior and to the fight against sin. The angel’s prayer is the prayer of your soul. Your soul itself pleads with you, calling you to decide for its defense against sin. Listen to the voice and the prayer of your soul—sign the Decision, and keep it!”

(Trifa 1923, p. 1)

This Resolution was placed on the front page of the newspaper, in the lower section, enclosed within a broad decorative frame so that it could easily be cut out. On the right-hand side, an image of a praying angel was printed, visually reinforcing the author’s call to repentance. The text of this Decision reads as follows:

“The undersigned, reflecting on how I might enter the New Year with spiritual benefit and salvation, hereby resolve that, beginning with this New Year, I shall remove from my life blasphemy and drunkenness. I realize what sins these are. Through blasphemy against holy things, I mock and crucify my Savior; and through drunkenness I allow Satan to become master over me and over my will. I renounce these sins with hatred and loathing, and I resolve in the coming year to keep my mind and judgment as clear and pure as my God has left them to me, and likewise to place my tongue solely in His service. By this decision, I join the ranks of those who, like me, have decided that together, as good soldiers of Christ, we shall begin the holy battle of cleansing our lives from our many and grievous sins. At the head of our army stands the Saviour, Christ Himself, and He will lead us to victory. Praying to my Saviour Jesus Christ to help me fight in His army, I sign this resolution, made for the good and salvation of my soul.

                                                              Given at .................... on New Year’s Day, 1923.”

                                                               …………………………………………………

                                                               subscriber to the newspaper Lumina Satelor

(Trifa 1923, p. 1)

The founder of the Oastea Domnului movement, Father Iosif Trifa, did not confine his editorial activity to periodical publications but undertook, between 1920 and 1938, an extensive work as both author and editor, culminating in the publication of thirty-four volumes. Written in a clear and accessible style, these works were primarily intended to interpret Scripture in a way comprehensible to ordinary people, conveying the evangelical message in a practical, pastoral form. At a time when the religious education of the Romanian laity was often limited, these popular booklets and devotional pamphlets became a remarkable missionary instrument, contributing significantly to the development of an authentic Christian conscience and to bringing the faithful closer to the biblical text. Through these writings, Trifa succeeded in presenting the essential teachings of Orthodox Christianity in simple, vivid, and engaging language—addressing moral themes, parables, and scriptural passages without diminishing their theological depth.

The success of these publications was due not only to the clarity and expressiveness of Trifa’s prose but also to his ability to integrate a distinctly moral and pastoral dimension, similar to the tone of his widely circulated newspaper, Lumina Satelor. In these works, the call to spiritual renewal in daily life occupied a central place: Trifa exhorted his readers to renounce sinful habits, purify their lives of moral corruption, and cultivate Christian virtues such as humility, diligence, love, and forgiveness. Taken as a whole, Trifa’s printed oeuvre constituted far more than a collection of popular catechetical texts; it represented a comprehensive strategy of national evangelization, designed to bridge the gap between the Orthodox message and the realities of rural Romanian life in the interwar period. The enthusiastic reception of these pamphlets—reflected in their high circulation and repeated editions—testifies to a genuine movement of moral and spiritual renewal among ordinary believers.

Over the course of fourteen years of missionary and editorial activity, Iosif Trifa published thirty-four titles (see more in Gogan 2008, p. 116–28), many of which appeared in multiple editions and continue to circulate today among members of The Lord’s Army Association, serving also as important instruments for promoting the movement’s message. These titles include: Spre Canaan (Toward Canaan); Cetiri și tâlcuiri din Biblie (Readings and Interpretations from the Bible); Tâlcuirea Evangheliilor Duminicilor de peste an (Interpretation of the Sunday Gospels throughout the Year); Din Pildele Mântuitorului (From the Parables of the Savior); 30 de povestiri religioase (Thirty Religious Stories); Adânciri în Evanghelia Mântuitorului (Deep Reflections on the Gospel of the Savior); Intrați în Oastea Domnului Isus/Ce este Oastea Domnului (Join the Lord Jesus’ Army/What Is the Lord’s Army); Pe urmele Mântuitorului (In the Footsteps of the Savior); Oglinda inimii omului (The Mirror of the Human Heart); La picioarele Stăpânului meu (At the Feet of My Lord); Mai lângă Domnul meu, mai lângă El (Closer to My Lord, Closer to Him); Corabia lui Noe (Noah’s Ark); Sodoma și Gomora (Sodom and Gomorrah); Trăim vremuri biblice (We Are Living in Biblical Times); Fiul cel pierdut (The Prodigal Son); Zaheu (Zacchaeus); Să creștem în Domnul (Let Us Grow in the Lord); Dumnezeu Duhul Sfânt (God the Holy Spirit); Vântul cel Ceresc (The Heavenly Wind); Focul cel Ceresc (The Heavenly Fire); 600 istorioare religioase (Six Hundred Religious Stories); Munca și lenea (Work and Idleness); Căutați la păsările cerului (Consider the Birds of the Air); Sabia Duhului (The Sword of the Spirit); Ia-ți crucea ta (Take Up Your Cross); Sudalma (Blasphemy); Duhul Diavolului—Alcoolul (The Devil’s Spirit—Alcohol); Spre Canaan (Toward Canaan); Fricoșii (de la Apocalipsa 21,8) (The Fearful [from Revelation 21:8]); Ca o oaie fără glas (53,7) (Like a Silent Sheep [Isaiah 53:7]); Ascultarea văzută în lumina Evangheliei (Obedience in the Light of the Gospel); La Învierea Domnului (At the Resurrection of the Lord); Examenul lui Iov (Job’s Trial); Cartea vieții—Biblia (The Book of Life—The Bible).

In the spiritual life of the members of the Oastea Domnului, these writings of Father Iosif Trifa occupy a central place. Although they do not possess a profoundly theological character, the texts of these concise works are written in a clear, direct, and deeply pastoral style, being firmly rooted in the biblical text and primarily aimed at awakening moral conscience, fostering personal repentance, and encouraging an active practice of the Christian faith. Iosif Trifa combines the interpretation of Scripture with concrete examples drawn from everyday life, employing accessible language marked by intentional repetition and an exhortative tone, in order to reach a broad audience, especially believers from rural environments or those with a limited theological education. The style of these books belongs to the sphere of popular theology, introductory catechesis, and spiritual awakening literature, emphasizing various issues related to communal life and the personal spiritual life of the faithful. In order to gain as comprehensive an understanding as possible of the writings of Iosif Trifa, a very detailed evaluation of each individual work would be necessary. Such an approach would make it possible to identify sources of inspiration from different Christian milieus (Catholic and Protestant) and to highlight the purpose of his writings.

Father Iosif Trifa enjoyed significant recognition and esteem from prominent ecclesiastical and cultural figures of his time, who regarded him as a priest of genuine missionary vocation and a true revitaliser of Romanian spiritual life. His initiatives aimed at moral renewal and at bringing the faithful closer to the values of the Gospel were frequently praised both within church circles and in the contemporary press, being seen as notable examples of social and religious apostolate adapted to the concrete needs of the people. Through his direct pastoral style, his intense publishing activity, and his ability to express the central themes of Christian faith in accessible language, Trifa succeeded in earning the respect of hierarchs, theologians (Mircea Păcurariu), and intellectuals alike (Nicolae Iorga, Nae Ionescu, Ioan Lupaș), thus affirming his role as a promoter of a living and active theology within society.

4. The Moral, Spiritual, and Social Paradigm of a New Religious Movement in Interwar Romania

4.1. The Innovative Character of the Lord’s Army: Self-Definitions and Programmatic Testimonies

The Lord’s Army defined itself, from its very beginnings, as a new work with a profound character of spiritual and moral renewal within the Romanian Orthodox Church. The discourse of the movement’s founder, as well as that of his early followers, reveals a strong awareness of novelty: the Lord’s Army did not regard itself as a mere form of catechesis or a parish association, but as a revival movement, a call to repentance and an authentic return to Christ. The self-definitions found in its programmatic texts emphasise differences in tone, method, and vision from the prevailing religious life of the time, placing special focus on conversion, the personal struggle against sin, and the revival of Christian responsibility. Therefore, the Lord’s Army’s innovative character is not a modern label imposed by later interpretations. However, a constitutive trait was explicitly affirmed by those who founded and led this work.

The beginnings of the Lord’s Army movement are placed under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, through whose work the movement developed and attracted a multitude of followers who enlisted in this ‘army of Christ.’ As the founder of the movement himself testifies, “The Lord’s Army has grown by the gift of God… All merit belongs to the work of the Holy Spirit. The Lord’s Army was born from the breath of the Holy Spirit and will live only as long as it remains under this breath and is sustained by this breath” (Trifa 2011, p. 22). Although Iosif Trifa was a cleric of the Orthodox Church and carried out his activities within it, his effort to propose a new spiritual direction to the masses did not primarily appeal to the Church’s age-old call to holiness, as expressed in the patristic and liturgical treasury that many believers were no longer assimilating. Instead, perhaps without being fully aware of it, he employed a missionary framework characteristic of a new call to spiritual awakening, or to the renewal of each believer’s personal spiritual commitment.

“The Lord’s Army is not a movement only against drunkenness and swearing, but a Movement against all sinful passions, for every evil passion is a kind of drunkenness. Our struggle has been directed especially against drunkenness and blasphemy, since these two passions in particular cause the greatest harm to the bodily and spiritual life of our people. The Lord’s Army is a Movement of spiritual rebirth; it is a Movement that penetrates the deep recesses of the human soul, in order to cut off evil at its very Source and to set good and renewal in motion from the very Source of power and transformation, who is Jesus the Saviour”.

(Trifa 2011, pp. 19–20)

The new religious movement that calls itself the Lord’s Army presents itself as a form of militia christiana (Trifa 2011, pp. 232–33), in which every ‘soldier’ arms himself with spiritual weapons in order to fight against the Devil—a constant and recurring theme within the movement’s philosophy, through which adherents are mobilised to remain active in their spiritual work.

“Among other things, history shows us that the first Christians understood their life as a spiritual militancy, a Christian militancy, a militancy of the Lord (in Latin they called it militia christiana—the Lord’s Army). Their enemy was the Devil, the world, and sins, and the reward of the struggle was the crown of life (Revelation 2:10). But, over the course of time, this army of the Lord has become depleted: it has cast away its weapons, abandoned the fight, abandoned its ‘uniform’ and its ‘barracks’. Today the world is full of Christians without ‘weapons’ and without a ‘uniform’”.

(Trifa 2011, pp. 232–33)

The novelty of this movement of spiritual renewal lies in the establishment of clear, mandatory guidelines for those seeking membership. Although enrollment in the Lord’s Army did not require a new baptism or any special liturgical ritual, it did entail a clear and firm commitment, undertaken by the “soldier”. Subsequently, it was validated by the community of members through observable changes in the adherent’s life and his renunciation of any form of vice or immoral behaviour (see more in Trifa 2007, 2013).

Beyond the inner spiritual life of the “soldier”, certain moral attitudes were expected to be visibly manifested through the strict observance of several sets of rules: “a good soldier of the Lord breaks completely and at once with every form of alcoholic drink” (Trifa 2011, pp. 179–80); “a soldier of the Lord does not attend parties, dances, or balls, because the way such festivities are conducted today makes them almost entirely drawn by the devil into his service” (Trifa 2011, pp. 182–83); “a soldier of the Lord does not swear and does not use any form of abusive language” (Trifa 2011, p. 185); “a soldier of the Lord does not smoke … for it is a repugnant practice” (Trifa 2011, p. 186).

The Lord’s Army defined itself as a new movement waging battle against the Devil with all the weapons of faith. A distinctive element for its members was the medal, a crucifix inscribed with the words “In the Army of Jesus”, followed by the exhortation of the Saint Apostle Paul: “Therefore, endure hardship as a good soldier of Christ” (2 Timothy 2:3). Moreover, the members (“soldiers”) abandoned the traditional and established forms of greeting and adopted a specific one, namely “Slăvit să fie Domnul!” (Glory be to the Lord!), to which the response is “În veci, amin!” (Forever, amen!) (Trifa 2011, pp. 245–47). All these distinctive forms of expression, setting its members apart from the rest of the Orthodox faithful, served to individualise and even to enclavize the movement, leading it to be regarded as a new phenomenon in contrast to the established tradition of Orthodox spirituality.

4.2. Prophetic Voice and Charismatic Attitude: The Founder’s Authority in the Dynamics of a New Religious Movement

At the heart of the Oastea Domnului’s origins stands the figure of its founder, the priest Iosif Trifa, who assumes a prophetic voice and a charismatic demeanour that go beyond the customary boundaries of pastoral ministry. His message, presented as a direct call to repentance, conversion, and moral awakening, grants the movement distinctive spiritual authority and an unusual missionary vitality within the Orthodox context of the time. This prophetic self-understanding is not a peripheral feature but a constitutive foundation of the movement’s identity: Trifa appears as an inspired interpreter of the times, a mediator of divine will, and a catalyst for religious renewal. Through his role, the Oastea Domnului takes shape as a new movement, endowed with a specific internal dynamic and a charismatic authority that structures its discourse and shapes its development.

“The Lord’s Army movement is from God. In this Movement I have been nothing more than a humble vessel that the Lord has used. At the first Congress of the Lord’s Army, held at Pentecost in 1932, I stated this plainly, as follows: ‘I am a living sermon before the Lord’s Army. In a work as great as the Lord’s Army, behold what a small and weak vessel the Lord has chosen, so that all may see and understand that the Lord’s Army truly belongs to the Lord and not to man! In the Lord’s Army movement, I am nothing but a humble and weak vessel that the Lord has used in His work’”.

(Trifa 2011, p. 21)

“Although the Lord’s Army movement was—and will remain—closely associated with the name and mission of Father Iosif Trifa, he emphasised that he was merely an instrument of the “work of the Spirit”, and that the Lord Himself is the Leader of the Army: “When the Lord’s Army movement began, I myself did not grasp what would follow. However, the Lord took care of His Work. The movement began to gain strength, and I began to receive from Above a Heavenly Fire with which to kindle the souls of people. And the gift continued to overflow until we reached this point. Therefore, I must state emphatically: the Lord’s Army belongs to the Lord, and its Leader—the Unseen One—is the Lord, the One who set it on its path!””.

(Trifa 2011, pp. 216–17)

What further underscores the new and distinct character of the Oastea Domnului as a religious movement is the fact that it did not present itself as a temporary revitalising impulse within the Romanian Orthodox Church, but rather sought to constitute a clear and differentiated form, free from any confusion with the structures already existing within the Church. According to the principles of Father Iosif Trifa, even devout Orthodox believers, regardless of the purity of their personal lives, were required to declare their affiliation if they wished to draw near to the Oastea Domnului. Only those who were soldiers of the Lord could, for example, be entrusted with carrying this mission forward in society.

In any religious movement, the figure of the founder occupies a fundamental role, for he becomes not only the initiator of a new spiritual direction, but also the paradigmatic model through which adherents structure their own faith identity (Botoi 2020, pp. 141–42). Through his theological vision, personal example, and ability to articulate a coherent framework of practices and values, the founder imparts to the movement its meaning, purpose, and distinctive mode of relating to religious and communal life. Even after his passing, followers continue to manifest a form of spiritual affiliation with the one who opened their path, regarding him as the normative point of reference for their religious commitment. The initiator of the Lord’s Army, Father Iosif Trifa, stands as such an example, for his spiritual authority and missionary vision have remained constitutive of the movement’s identity and direction, shaping how subsequent generations of ‘soldiers’ have understood the call to renewal and Christian responsibility.

Based on a series of articles published in the periodicals of the Lord’s Army (Lumina satelor, Oastea Domnului, Iisus Biruitorul) as well as on the books authored by Father Iosif Trifa, we do not consider that he intended to create a new movement that would differentiate itself from or distance itself from the Orthodox Church. Rather, we argue that his aim was to renew the moral life of Orthodox believers, following both objective and subjective personal observations regarding the conduct of Orthodox Christians in their personal and communal lives. As previously noted, this took place within a specific historical context (Necula 2002, p. 13; 2003). However, the fact that Father Iosif Trifa’s missionary method did not conform to traditional Orthodox patterns led to the movement being assessed as closer, in its modes of expression, to evangelical movements than to Orthodox tradition. Father Trifa’s missionary initiative began with the blessing of Metropolitan Nicolae Bălan, and his mission continued for a certain period in a natural collaboration with ecclesial authority. For various and complex reasons, which we do not intend to analyze here, this collaboration was abruptly interrupted with the defrocking of Father Iosif Trifa. This development generated a series of suspicions within the Orthodox milieu and subsequently created the conditions for a form of enclavization of the Oastea Domnului movement, which maintained a relationship that was largely formal with church institutions.

4.3. The Role of Laypeople in Shaping the Oastea Domnului: Active Participation and Missionary Responsibility

One of the most original features of the Oastea Domnului is the central role granted to lay believers in the movement’s life and dynamics. Unlike the predominant model of the time, which directed religious involvement primarily toward liturgical and sacramental participation, the Lord’s Army promotes active mobilisation of all believers, calling them to become witnesses of the Gospel and direct participants in the Church’s mission. Within the movement, laypeople acquire unprecedented visibility and responsibility: they deliver exhortative talks, organise local gatherings, distribute religious literature, and assume catechetical and missionary tasks. This activation of ordinary believers is not merely a practical strategy, but a defining element of the movement’s identity, contributing decisively to its character as a new religious movement and to its rapid spread among the faithful.

Beyond the broader historical tendency of the period to involve the laity more extensively in the life of the Church, the Oastea Domnului movement articulated a vision in which, from our perspective, laypersons were placed at the forefront. The most visible feature consisted in the practice of lay preaching within the gatherings of the Oastea Domnului, a phenomenon that had no precedent in Orthodox liturgical life. In Orthodox worship, apart from the clergy and the choir (cantors), the vast majority of the faithful attending the service were not actively involved in the reading of sacred or liturgical texts, nor in church singing. By contrast, within the Oastea Domnului movement, the entire community was expected to participate actively in the reading, knowledge, and interpretation of biblical texts, as well as in the performance of its specific hymns. At the same time, missionary activity—understood as the dissemination of the movement’s ideas—was entrusted to each individual member, who was encouraged to involve other Christians in the life of the Oastea Domnului. This pattern of grassroots missionary engagement represented a distinctive and uncommon feature within the Romanian Orthodox context.

At the same time, the clergy assumed a secondary role in its activities. In any case, the movement’s composition was predominantly lay, as to be expected, given that not all priests in Transylvania embraced this new initiative. Moreover, the movement further distinguished itself by complementing participation in the public divine services of the Orthodox Church with the organisation of separate gatherings attended exclusively by members of the Oastea Domnului. These assemblies were typically held on Sunday afternoons or evenings, though at times also on other days of the week, and took place in churches, private homes, and later in specially arranged “soldiers’“ houses.

Within the gatherings of the Lord’s Army, three aspects are emphasised that become defining for this new movement and that shape its theological and spiritual program. First, the reading of the Bible occupies a central place in Oastea Domnului’s program, with daily engagement with the sacred text strongly encouraged, along with its interpretation. The Bible thus becomes an indispensable weapon for each “soldier”. Secondly, another defining element of the Lord’s Army’s “worship” is communal prayer in a form distinct from that of the Orthodox liturgical tradition. This form more closely resembles the types of prayer characteristic of Neo-Protestant communities: “The soldiers of the Lord must learn to pray not only from prayer books, but also with their own words. Prayer expressed in one’s own words is a sign of the work of the Holy Spirit” (Trifa 2011, p. 195). Thirdly, another important element is communal singing of religious hymns, which represented a novelty in the Romanian context and was very well received by the masses. These songs were versified and set to accessible melodies, often resembling those used in Neo-Protestant communities, yet conveying a particularised message that also incorporated Orthodox elements, even though the emphasis tended to fall more on the evangelical dimension of Christianity.

4.4. Print as a Missionary Vehicle: The Press of the Oastea Domnului and the Dynamics of the Movement’s Expansion

A fundamental element in the dissemination and consolidation of the Oastea Domnului was the strategic use of printed media as its primary instrument of communication, outreach, and spiritual formation. From the very beginning, publications coordinated by the priest Iosif Trifa, especially newspapers, leaflets, and popular booklets, served as a missionary vehicle for rapidly, accessibly, and sustainably transmitting the movement’s message. Through its press, the Lord’s Army articulated its identity, explained its spiritual program, motivated its members, and created a communication network that connected local communities. Printed materials were not merely technical tools, but spaces of moral and theological formation, instruments of internal cohesion, and decisive factors in transforming the Lord’s Army into a nationwide religious movement.

For the Oastea Domnului movement, journalism was an essential activity, regarded as a “walking Gospel” and becoming a militant creed for its founder and each of its members. The missionary instrumentalisation of the printed press maximally facilitated the dissemination of ideas across a broad Romanian public that was increasingly striving toward literacy. Father Iosif Trifa conceived journalism as a “steel monastery” or a sentient redoubt, intended to re-signify the paideic function of the Word and to preserve the unaltered, traditional meaning of information.

Alongside the spiritual dimension of the periodicals published by Oastea Domnului, other types of content—social, cultural, political, economic, and national—were by no means excluded. These were intended both to maintain the reader’s interest and to educate the populace toward a Christian understanding of contemporary reality and current social events. Thus, within the newspaper Lumina satelor, important sections included: “What Has Been Debated in Parliament”, “What Is New in Political Life”, “What Is New in the Wider World”, “Miscellanea”, and even “Let Us Tell a Joke or Two”. However, these profane materials were always filtered through a religious lens, translating their meaning into a social ethic permeated by the movement’s particular spiritual vision. Moreover, such secular events and information served as pretexts for articulating spiritual beliefs and interpretations of worldly life. Every event or occurrence in social life can be given a biblical reference, inviting reflection on sacred matters or on analogous events in biblical history (Trifa 1932, p. 1).

Father Iosif Trifa was acutely aware that the typical reader was generally subscribed to a single periodical. Therefore, he believed that the paper had to offer everything that might interest such a reader at that moment, or anything that could constitute, for him and his peers, an event worthy of note. At the same time, the journalist realised that a well-written publication is not necessarily a well-read one, and that readers do not engage with the press for the stylistic merits of one journalist or another, but for the information they seek and for the manner in which that information is addressed. Informational genres are always more in demand than opinion pieces. No matter how well one writes about a particular topic, if the topic does not interest readers, the text has no journalistic value. In this case, writing well means adapting to the audience, the media channel, and the genre’s requirements. Iosif Trifa quickly mastered adapting to Lumina’s readership. His style is therefore precise and straightforward, bearing the imprint of his priestly vocation, in which the pulpit becomes the doorway through which the villager, waiting on the threshold, seeks “illumination” and news concerning “what is happening in the wider world”.

In addition to Lumina Satelor, the Oastea Domnului movement published several other periodicals prior to Father Iosif Trifa’s death, all of which emerged amid the conflict between Trifa and Metropolitan Nicolae Bălan. Thus, in Sibiu, the following publications appeared: Iisus Biruitorul (1935–1937), Tineretul Domnului (1936–1937), Ecoul (1937), and Glasul Dreptății (1937–1938), while in Bucharest, the periodical Ostașul Domnului (1937) was issued (Mihoc 2023, p. 5).

Father Iosif Trifa also possessed a visionary spirit, through which he maximised the potential of this missionary instrument of his time, maintaining an active readership to whom he offered spiritual direction without disregarding the needs and expectations of the contemporary world. Thus, the newspapers of the Oastea Domnului launched various competitions (Trifa 1929, p. 14) that required constant interaction with the periodical’s text and regular, attentive reading. Moreover, these publications served as a channel for specific socially sensitive projects (Trifa 1930, p. 1), especially during religious feasts, when people were more inclined to show solidarity with those in various forms of need.

The journalistic output of the Oastea Domnului movement in these periodicals would require a comprehensive and critical evaluation in order to trace several lines of inquiry that could contribute to a deeper understanding of the context in which this movement emerged (see more at Clark 2021, pp. 44–48). The theological and spiritual messages articulated in the pages of these publications are occasioned by various public events, which are interpreted through a spiritual and programmatic lens intended to support the movement’s national project. Furthermore, events of an ecumenical and political nature can be identified in the press coverage, allowing for connections to be drawn with different national and international movements. Some of the article contributors also reveal specific attitudes and positions toward various religious movements or political orientations. The present study has not been able to undertake such an analysis; rather, it leaves this task open for future research focused specifically on the press of the Oastea Domnului movement.

5. Conclusions

Considering the contextual analysis of the emergence of the Oastea Domnului movement, the foregoing discussion highlights the complexity of this movement’s origins within the Romanian milieu. First, as previously shown, the rise of the Oastea Domnului can be attributed to the broader spiritual renewal movements that swept across Eastern Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century. Furthermore, against the backdrop of Transylvania’s long-standing familiarity with heterodox confessions (Catholic and Protestant), the evangelical/neo-Protestant movements that emerged in Romania through the return of Romanian emigrants from Western Europe and the United States began to attract an increasing number of adherents from the Orthodox population. This development was also facilitated by the specific missionary approach of neo-Protestant denominations, which focused on addressing individuals personally rather than emphasising mass conversion, and which refrained from framing matters in ethnic terms. On the contrary, they even encouraged a sense of national identity, albeit within the parameters characteristic of neo-Protestantism. The new Romanian socio-political context also prompted a movement of renewal within the Orthodox Church itself, and this expectation was, in its initial phase, largely fulfilled—or at least given form—by the Oastea Domnului movement, particularly within the Metropolitanate of Transylvania.

Secondly, this movement was initiated by a visionary priest who gradually acquired prophetic authority, enabling him to implement his missionary principles effectively. In pursuing this aim, he made strategic and advantageous use of the printed press, through which he reached most regions of the country. The widespread need for mass literacy, together with the population’s desire for cultural advancement in the new socio-political context of Greater Romania, contributed to the exceptionally high circulation of the Oastea Domnului periodicals.

Thirdly, the Oastea Domnului movement emphasised several dimensions that deeply impacted believers and drew them into a context in which their role was clearly defined. The reading and study of the Bible, translated into Romanian and widely disseminated, the encouragement of spontaneous prayers during the movement’s communal gatherings, and, above all, the singing of religious hymns accessible to all members of the assembly all contributed to enhanced involvement of the laity. This, in turn, endowed their participation in community life with renewed purpose.

Taken together, these considerations reveal that the emergence of the Oastea Domnului movement cannot be reduced to a single cause or influence, but must instead be understood as the product of a confluence of socio-political, ecclesial, and cultural factors characteristic of early twentieth-century Romania. The movement drew simultaneously on broader trends of spiritual renewal in Eastern Europe, on the specific religious dynamics of Transylvania, and on an internal Orthodox desire for revitalisation. Its development was further shaped by the charismatic leadership of its founder and by the strategic mobilisation of modern communication technologies, which enabled its message to spread rapidly across diverse regions. Finally, by fostering lay participation through Scripture reading, prayer, and congregational hymnody, the Oastea Domnului articulated a model of Christian life that resonated deeply with contemporary aspirations for personal and communal transformation. As such, it stands as a significant expression of Romanian religious modernization, situated at the crossroads of tradition and renewal.

As stated at the outset, the present analysis of the Oastea Domnului movement is limited to the context of its emergence and to the first decade of its activity during the lifetime of Father Iosif Trifa. The subsequent stages in the history of the Oastea Domnului would require separate assessments, as they involve significant developments and transformations. Although the movement continues to function today within the Romanian Orthodox Church, it still gives rise to differing perspectives among Orthodox clergy and faithful. Moreover, when compared to its structure and orientation during the interwar period, the Oastea Domnului, having passed through the period of prohibition under the communist regime and having resumed its official activity after 1990, exhibits several new features concerning the direction of its missionary strategy and its theological perspectives. Furthermore, differing approaches to action can also be identified within the movement itself. For these reasons, the reader of the present article should limit his or her expectations to the interwar period of the Oastea Domnului’s activity.