Islamic Religious Education and Citizenship Education: An Empirical Study of Teachers’ Perspectives in Austria

Abstract

Research into Citizenship Education has become increasingly important in recent years. It deals with the promotion of social cohesion, democracy and human rights. This article examines the interfaces between Citizenship Education and Religious Education, particularly from the perspective of Islamic religious teachers in Austria. The empirical basis is a qualitative study conducted as part of the author’s dissertation, which includes group discussions with 41 Islamic Religious Education teachers. The results were analyzed using the documentary method. The analysis focuses on two key aspects: first, the role of Islamic Religious Education in supporting the integration, participation and identity formation of young people, and second, challenges of Religious Education in a social context.

1. Introduction

Religious Education and Citizenship Education are particularly relevant in Europe’s pluralistic societies today. Migrants bring diverse religious backgrounds with them, often influenced by war, displacement or economic migration. This diversity is particularly evident in classrooms, where teachers encounter young people from a wide range of religious backgrounds and guide them on their path to becoming responsible citizens (Williams et al. 2008). Citizenship Education, understood as education for political maturity and social participation, aims to promote democratic values, social responsibility and intercultural competence (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Frauen (BMBF) 2015). Muslim pupils are one of the largest religious groups in European schools. The social and educational inclusion of Muslim pupils is therefore of central importance in the debate on the contribution of Religious Education to Citizenship Education.

Religious Education is taught in different forms across European schools. In most European countries, either Religious Education or an alternative subject, such as Ethics, Philosophy, or Values and Norms, is offered in state schools—with the notable exceptions of France and Albania. However, the organization of these classes varies greatly between and, to some extent, within the respective states. While some countries and federal states pursue cross-denominational models, Islamic Religious Education in Austria remains organized along denominational lines (Rothgangel 2019). This diversity of approaches reflects both the different religious and cultural characteristics of the European educational landscapes as well as the historical differences between them, for example, with regard to their migration history.

The growing presence of Islam in Western Europe is the subject of particularly controversial debates, especially with regard to gender roles and LGBTQIA+ rights as well as the relationship between religion and the state. The Islamic faith is perceived as an obstacle to integration in large parts of the political discourse. These debates show the close intertwining of social affiliation and religious identity. It is sometimes overlooked that, since the beginning of labor migration into Western Europe in the 1960s, Muslims have been confronted with circumstances that were often completely unknown to them in their countries of origin. Today, European Muslims live in societies that no longer derive their rules from their faith. They therefore have to reinterpret their religion. This requires an intensive discourse about what role religion plays in their lives. Islamic theologians and religious educators in Europe have to question their traditional frameworks and deal with new questions that previously had no place in their history (Aslan 2015). The new challenges for migrants in Europe consist therefore primarily of asserting themselves as a minority in a pluralistic society, participating in it and identifying themselves as part of it (Aslan 2015).

However, religion remains a formative force for identity formation and social cohesion in European societies. Habermas (2001) describes the post-secular society as a field of tension between secularization and religion. In the context of globalization and international migration, the concept of citizenship is gaining importance, with tensions between liberal democracy and nationalism increasing. In view of these developments, the EU and the UN have expanded the concept of conflict prevention to include human rights aspects (Biondo and Hermansen 2022).

Against the background of these findings, however, the question arises as to which religious values and attitudes Religious Education should teach in order to be in line with the principles of a democratic society and the goals of Citizenship Education. This challenge has become more urgent in recent years. It raises fundamental questions about how Religious Education can contribute to the promotion of democratic participation and the capacity for plurality (Schweitzer 2008).

This article examines the contribution of Islamic Religious Education to Citizenship Education and the relevance of Citizenship Education for Islamic Religious Education from an empirical perspective. It is often assumed that Islamic Religious Education can promote the participation and integration of students from religious minorities and convey pluralism as a social consensus (Biondo and Hermansen 2022). The extent to which this can be the case is analyzed on the basis of empirical findings in this article. The analysis is based on the experiences of Islamic Religious Education teachers in Austria and the results of my dissertation.

To answer this question, I draw on two central discourses: first, the question of integration and the positioning of Islamic Religious Education teachers in this regard. Secondly, religious mediation is subjected to a new hermeneutic analysis, as the context of the pupils’ lives in Austria cannot be equated with that of their countries of origin.

The article is structured as follows. First, it explains what is meant by Citizenship Education. The research situation on the interface between Islam and Citizenship Education is then presented in order to create the framework for a narrowed perspective. I then present the aim of my dissertation and the methodological approach. Two perspectives that are particularly relevant for the discussion of Citizenship Education and Religious Education are then examined in detail on the basis of empirical findings from my research. Finally, an outlook is provided on the theoretical implications of the empirical results for the discourse on citizenship and Religious Education.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. What Is Citizenship?

“Citizenship is the right to have rights”—Hannah Arendt

The concept of citizenship is the subject of ongoing debate in academic research. While it may appear straightforward at first glance, closer examination reveals its complexity. According to the Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.), citizenship is defined as “the state of being a member of a particular country and having rights because of it”.

However, this seemingly simple definition encompasses various political, social and legal dimensions. The term refers to the formal affiliation to a state and at the same time describes the identification with a political community (Thürer 2000). According to Holz (2000, p. 7), citizenship is the “modern form of social positioning of people according to political affiliation”. Citizens form a constitutive element of the nation state, as a population is a necessary basis for its existence (Bauböck and Vink 2013). At the same time, citizenship means legal equality as well as equal rights and obligations for all members of this political community (Gosewinkel 2008).

Citizenship can have at least three different but interrelated meanings. First, it describes legal status within a nation state. From a certain age, a citizen has political, civil and social rights, including the right to vote and the opportunity to participate in politics (Jackson 2003; Marshall 1992). Secondly, citizenship involves the active exercising of these rights, whereby the possession of rights is linked to the duty to participate in society (Jackson 2003). Depending on the political theory—such as liberalism or republicanism—the definition of the ideal citizen varies considerably. Thirdly, citizenship builds a bridge between these two aspects. It is about the ability of citizens to actually exercise their rights through processes of socialization and education (Schulz et al. 2016).

The granting of citizenship creates a symbolic community with a ‘we’ that implies an ‘other’—a group without certain rights (Bloemraad et al. 2008; Osler and Starkey 2005; Thürer 2000). The concept of citizenship comprises four aspects: first, the right to political participation, the right to vote and stand for election, and democratic co-determination (Benhabib 2007; Stack 2012); secondly, social rights such as education, healthcare and social benefits; thirdly, civil rights, including freedom of expression, assembly and religion, which today apply universally. Fourth, citizenship describes not only a formal affiliation, but also a “sense of belonging” (Lister et al. 2007, p. 9; Bloemraad et al. 2008) that arises through shared life and values.

In practice, however, it is clear that two of these aspects—social and civil rights—now largely also apply to non-citizens. However, political co-determination remains the decisive formal difference between citizens and non-citizens.

2.2. Alternative Concepts of Citizenship

The concept of citizenship thus describes membership of a community, and the rights and obligations associated with it (Meer 2014). Against the backdrop of global challenges, political scientists have developed alternative concepts that are intended to expand or replace the traditional understanding of citizenship, which is tied to nation states. Global citizenship understands citizenship as belonging to a global community in which human rights and solidarity take center stage (Brunkhorst and Kettner 2000). However, critics point out that global power relations and unequal access to resources prevent universal equality and exclude certain groups (Jefferess 2014; Wintersteiner et al. 2015). The idea of world citizenship, which can be traced back to Immanuel Kant, is making a comeback in current debates (Osler and Starkey 2005; Seitz 2009), an approach that emphasizes global governance structures but still recognizes the importance of the nation state (Seitz 2009).

In addition, concepts such as postnational and transnational citizenship argue that the nation state has become too small a frame of reference to meet the challenges of the globalized world (Thürer 2000). While postnational citizenship pursues a regional perspective such as the European Union (Tambini 2001), transnational citizenship focuses on cross-border identities and networks (Fox 2005). Joppke (2007) shows that citizenship is increasingly moving between national belonging and global human rights, which challenges traditional notions of citizenship.

Another concept is multicultural citizenship, which expands citizenship to include cultural and religious identity issues and demands group rights for cultural minorities (Pawley 2008). However, critics warn that multicultural citizenship could contribute to social fragmentation by reinforcing ethnic boundaries and group-based distinctions (Tambini 2001). In response, many states have adopted integration policies aimed at promoting social cohesion. According to Joppke (2007), these policies should be based on universalist principles—emphasizing individual rights and equal treatment—rather than group-specific accommodations, in order to uphold the values of equality and non-discrimination. Finally, digital citizenship deals with the use of digital platforms for political participation and emphasizes the need for digital education to counter manipulation and disinformation (Kenner and Lange 2018). According to Joppke (2007), citizenship increasingly transcends physical boundaries, creating new challenges for identity and social integration.

2.3. Research on Citizenship Concerning Muslims in Europe

Not only the academic debate on the relationship between Islam and identity, but also the lived experiences of many devout Muslims make it clear that loyalty to a state does not have to contradict the teachings of the Islamic faith. Many people feel a sense of belonging both to their respective religious community and to the civil society in which they live (Aslan et al. 2017). The role of religion, especially Islam, in the conception of citizenship is, however, complex and raises numerous questions. This complexity has increased further in recent years as the concept of citizenship itself has evolved and become more responsive to societal changes (Biondo and Hermansen 2022).

A recent study by Loxston and Jachens (2023), for example, shows how Muslim women in Switzerland construct their identity and sense of belonging in a pluralistic society. The authors identify key areas of tension between a public and a private religious identity as well as strategies for overcoming stereotyping labels given by others. In particular, they emphasize that religious faith is for many an important source of resilience and enables the study participants to overcome experiences of discrimination. Similar challenges are also evident in the USA, where Muslim Americans experience a hybrid identity: as citizens of the United States and as members of the global, transnational Islamic community (Ummah). This dual affiliation leads to both enrichment and challenges in dealing with loyalty and social participation (Khan 2019).

It can sometimes be difficult for Muslims to participate in society and exercise their civil rights. Empirical studies show that Somali Muslims in Denmark are one of the groups most affected by discrimination, particularly on the labor market, in the education system and within social life. The perception of Muslims in Western countries is often strongly characterized by security and integration policy discourses, which makes access to social participation more difficult (Open Society Foundations 2014). In particular, the structural barriers that arise from migration and transnationalism influence the understanding of citizenship.

Against this background, the social and religious position of Muslims in Muslim and pluralistic Western societies can be seen as a key to a contemporary interpretation of citizenship. Social and political pluralism is particularly challenging when Islam is seen as part of a national identity (Biondo and Hermansen 2022). Zuriet and Lyausheva (2019) show that Muslim identity has a complex, dynamic structure with integrative and conflict-promoting characteristics that are fluid depending on the social context. This is linked to the concept of transformative citizenship within modern citizenship theory.

The study by Essabane et al. (2023) examines how Islamic Religious Education can contribute to an understanding of citizenship that requires active participation in shaping society. The aim of transformative citizenship is to overcome social injustices and structural barriers through an understanding of identity that recognizes multiple affiliations and deconstructs dichotomies such as ‘us’ and ‘them’. Temporary forms of essentialism as a strategy against marginalization are not excluded. According to this study, Islamic Religious Education particularly strengthens students’ identity formation. Teachers emphasize that a ‘good Muslim’ is also a ‘good citizen’ and that social participation should extend beyond the Muslim community. There are different views on legal status. Some consider it irrelevant; others emphasize religious freedom and the protection of minorities. Controversial terms such as sharia and jihad are treated differently. Some emphasize universal values; others promote religious language and discourse through a variety of interpretations. There is disagreement as to whether Religious Education should primarily serve socialization or open critical identity formation. It is crucial that educational institutions offer space for different interpretations and rational discussions (Essabane et al. 2023).

In Western Europe, many Muslims are relatively young migrants. Therefore, the educational mandate to promote citizenship is aimed in particular at young Muslim people who are socialized in European societies. Modood (2007) emphasizes the need for a multicultural education policy in order to better integrate young Muslims into Western societies. This requires an education system that not only recognizes religious and cultural diversity but actively promotes it (see also Modood and May 2001).

However, empirical studies show that, despite these tensions, Muslim adolescents and adults demonstrate a strong willingness to participate in society. Many of them do not see their religious identity as a contradiction to their citizenship affiliation, but rather as a motivation for social engagement and active citizenship (Vergani et al. 2017; Johns et al. 2015).

In Western countries, there is a broad body of research on the relationship between Islamic principles and citizenship. It includes constructive theological approaches (An-Naim 2014) as well as pedagogical perspectives (Coles 2010) and emphasizes that religious identities can serve as a resource for social participation. Peucker (2018) shows that, in Australia and Germany, Islamic religiosity does not hinder active citizenship but often promotes it. Involvement in mosque communities in particular strengthens citizenship and political engagement and contradicts the assumption that Islam and democracy are fundamentally incompatible (see Badawi 2003; Khan 2002).

However, the 21st century is also characterized by a crisis of citizenship as a result of globalization. In this context, the terrorist attacks since 11 September 2001 have linked the terms ‘Muslim’ and ‘terrorist’ in the minds of many people. This added a new dimension to the preexisting association between ‘Muslim’ and ‘migrant’ in the West, developing the link ‘Muslim—migrant—terrorist’. Migration is increasingly perceived not only as a threat to national identity but also to physical security, although there is little evidence that more migration automatically leads to more terrorist activity, especially in Western countries (Bottoni 2022).

In the UK, these developments led to an intensified debate about the need to establish Citizenship Education as an integral part of school education. The so-called Crick Report of 1998 had already presented recommendations for political education in schools. The subsequent terrorist attacks—in particular those of 11 September 2001 in the USA, the bomb attacks in Madrid in 2004 and the terrorist attacks in London in July 2005—intensified this discussion and brought questions of the social integration of European Muslims further into focus (corresponding Teachingcitizenship 1998).

2.4. Religious Education and Citizenship Education

A central challenge of Citizenship Education is to enable people from different backgrounds to live together respectfully and peacefully. This involves teaching common values and shared historical narratives, which are, however, controversial (Biondo and Hermansen 2022). Religious Education can reduce tensions by promoting empathy and understanding for different worldviews and building social bridges. It also encourages students to contribute their perspectives to public discourse and to hold democratic values. There is growing research interest in exploring how state and religious curricula integrate human rights and pluralism and the role that teaching materials play in this (Biondo and Hermansen 2022).

Denominational Religious Education in Austria is currently offered by 15 of the 16 state-recognized churches and religious societies (Federal Chancellery of Austria 2024). This structure reflects the growing ideological plurality of Western societies, which are characterized by globalization and migration. While this opens up potential for mutual enrichment, conflicts can also arise on this basis. Schools must therefore teach children and adolescents the skills they need to deal with heterogeneity and ambivalence. However, Religious Education should not only impart knowledge about religions but also promote social commitment by strengthening the recognition and appreciation of religious diversity, encouraging reflection on one’s own and other religious beliefs and promoting the ability to engage in interreligious dialogue and to deal critically with fundamentalist currents.

In Austria, Citizenship Education is based on three pillars. It is anchored as an independent or interdisciplinary teaching principle, is promoted by the school partnership and contributes to democracy and human rights education. Teachers should support critical judgement and allow controversial positions without imposing their own opinion (Überwältigungsverbot) in order to promote a democratic culture of discussion (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Frauen (BMBF) 2015). This understanding is based on the so-called Beutelsbach Consensus of 1976, which formulated the principles of political education in view of the reappraisal of Germany’s National Socialist history and the prevention of fascism. In addition to the aforementioned Überwältigungsverbot, these principles also include the principle of pupil orientation and the principle of controversy or contrariness, which states that the diversity of scientific and political discourse must be clearly represented in order to promote the formation of pupils’ opinions within the framework of political education (Schneider 1988).

The curriculum of the interdisciplinary teaching principle of Citizenship Education—including Religious Education—pursues the following central objectives:

Understanding social structures: Learners should recognize power relations and potential for change and critically question underlying interests and values.

Promoting democratic co-determination: Political education shows opportunities for participation at various levels and encourages active participation.

Peacekeeping and justice: It conveys the importance of just peace regimes and fair distribution of resources as a global responsibility (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Frauen (BMBF) 2015).

A study from 2009 also shows that only 49% of Austrian teachers have even heard of the teaching principles of Citizenship Education. This illustrates the need for greater sensitization to political content in lessons, including Religious Education. In order to professionalize teachers, it is essential not only to integrate political aspects into lessons, but also to prepare teachers specifically for the didactic teaching of political skills. This requires standardized training and regular further education to ensure that political education is taught competently and sustainably (Filzmaier and Klepp 2009; Lechner-Amante 2014).

The curricula for Islamic Religious Education emphasize political education as a central element. The aim is to offer pupils guidance and support them in developing a European–Muslim identity within Austria’s pluralistic society. They should learn to defend their own position and at the same time tolerate other points of view. Teachers are required to convey the compatibility of Islam and democracy and to enable pupils to actively participate in politics (Curriculum for Islamic Religious Education (BMBWF) 2021).

In European cities with a high Muslim population, it is evident that the professionalization of teacher training plays an important role in social cohesion. In particular, the university training of Islamic religious teachers contributes to the teaching of citizenship values and strengthens intercultural dialogue (Berglund 2015; Biondo and Hermansen 2022).

Sejdini emphasizes that the curricula of Islamic religious education teach values such as human rights, pluralism, freedom of opinion and religion, democracy and integration and are compatible with Islamic principles. However, it is crucial that the teachers not only teach these values in theory but also live them themselves (Sejdini 2015). Studies from other European countries emphasize the importance of a curriculum that takes into account the realities of Muslim children and young people’s lives (Berglund 2015; Allenbach 2015; Biondo and Hermansen 2022).

This shows the overlap between the goals of Religious Education and Citizenship Education. Both should not only impart knowledge but also encourage autonomy and the ability to make independent judgments in order to promote pupils’ maturity (Berger and Breser 2019). An essential contribution of Islamic Religious Education is to strengthen feelings of belonging, especially among pupils who belong to a cultural or religious minority. As many European Muslims perceive themselves as both a religious and an ethnic minority, there is an increased risk of isolation. Actively engaging in the new social environment creates opportunities for identification and promotes a sense of belonging (Sejdini 2015). These aspects are closely related to the central dimensions of Citizenship Education, which are systematically summarized in

Table 1. Relevant aspects of Citizenship Education for denominational Religious Education.

Interacting Effectively and Constructively with Others	Thinking Critically	Acting in a Socially Responsible Manner	Acting Democratically
Self-confidence	Multi-perspectivity	Solidarity	Participating
Autonomy (personal initiative)	Understanding the present world	Respect for other human beings	Knowledge of or participation in civil society
Responsibility	Questioning	Sense of belonging
Respect for different opinions or beliefs		Knowing about or respecting religions
Self-awareness		Non-discrimination
Intercultural skills
Flexibility or adaptability

.

Many Western countries emphasize citizenship duties, a sense of responsibility and commitment to democratic institutions in their curricula. In 1998, UNESCO defined Citizenship Education as education that turns children into enlightened citizens who actively participate in social decision making. It emphasized interaction between human and civil rights: “Citizenship Education can be defined as educating children, from early childhood, to become clear-thinking and enlightened citizens who participate in decisions concerning society. All human beings are both individuals and citizens of the society to which they belong. Therefore, human rights and citizen rights are interdependent” (UNESCO 1998). Eurydice (2005) provides a comprehensive overview of Citizenship Education in European schools. In the context of Islamic Religious Education, this means that students should not only acquire knowledge about their own religion, but also develop skills that strengthen their participation in society, such as critical thinking and intercultural skills, which are also reflected in Table 1.

Despite country-specific differences, European curricula pursue common goals such as tolerance, multiculturalism and anti-racist education. Religious Education contributes to this by teaching respect for religious and ideological diversity. A distinction is made between “learning about” religion (imparting knowledge) and “learning from” religion (reflection) in order to promote dialogue and an understanding of plurality (Grimmitt 2000; Nipkow 2005). The aspect of multi-perspectivity is particularly important here, as a reflective examination of religious and social issues is necessary in order to develop differentiated perspectives. Studies from the UK show that structured learning formats support young people in dealing with diversity (Gates 2006; Williams et al. 2008).

Despite the high relevance of political education and Religious Education as an integrative place of learning, there are only a few scientific studies on their practical implementation. In particular, there is a lack of empirical findings on the perceptions of pupils and the experiences and orientations of Religious Education teachers. This research gap emphasizes the need for in-depth analysis in order to better understand the challenges and the potential of democracy-related education in Religious Education.

The present article is intended as a stimulus for thought and derives reflections from my empirical material. Its aim is not to present a comprehensive analysis, but to highlight central questions and observations that encourage discussion of the contribution of Islamic Religious Education to Citizenship Education and the relevance of Citizenship Education for Islamic Religious Education. In doing so, we will draw on the core aspects of Citizenship Education presented in Table 1, which will be taken up again and expanded upon in the empirical analyses (Section 4) on the basis of specific statements by the teachers surveyed.

3. Methodology and Research Design

My dissertation “Religious Pedagogical Habitus of Islamic Religious Teachers: A reconstructive study on collective orientation frameworks in the context of (inter-)religious learning” discusses the religious pedagogical habitus or habitual orientation frameworks of Islamic Religious Education teachers as a basis for the practice of (inter-)religious learning (Yağdı 2023). Its subject is the reconstruction of the Religious Education habitus of Islamic Religious Education teachers in Austria, i.e., the reconstruction of their professional self-image as well as their fundamental structures of thought and action in the context of (inter)religious teaching and learning processes.

In order to address this question, comprehensive data were collected as part of a qualitative empirical method of reconstructive social research. A total of 41 Islamic Religious Education teachers from various Austrian federal states participated in eight group discussions, where they shared their experiences, beliefs, and concerns. The participants were selected via personal networks and were deliberately heterogeneous. Different educational backgrounds (Austrian and international specialized training), professional experience and interreligious practical experience were taken into account. The aim was to represent as broad a spectrum of perspectives as possible in order to reconstruct the collective orientation framework of this professional group.

The collected material was analyzed using the documentary method according to Ralf Bohnsack in order to reconstruct the collective habitus of the group. This method focuses on latent structures of meaning that emerge between the lines and takes into account both explicit content and implicit orientations. A central component is the reflective interpretation, which works out the narrative framework and underlying patterns of interpretation. “Rather, it requires an insight into practical knowledge and the inherent dynamics of interaction and habitualized practice” (Bohnsack 2002, p. 120). By systematically comparing different statements, collective patterns of thought can be recognized (Bohnsack 2014).

The empirical analysis resulted in six central comparative dimensions in which relevant topics of the Religious Education habitus reconstruction are critically examined:

• challenges of Religious Education in a social context;
• support for the integration, participation and identity development of young people as part of subject-orientation as a Religious Education requirement;
• role models and attributions of Islamic religious teachers;
• the institutional and structural framework as a basic prerequisite for successful teaching;
• the importance and potential of interreligious teaching and learning processes;
• the discourse of recognition and othering structures in intercultural and interreligious encounters.

In this article, I will not discuss all the results of my study (more on this in (removed for peer review)), but rather focus on two central aspects in connection with Citizenship Education and Islamic Religious Education:

• support for the integration, participation and identity development of young people as part of subject-orientation as a Religious Education requirement;
• challenges of Religious Education in a social context.

A central starting point for the group discussions was the key question: “Why did you become a Religious Education teacher?” The first statements already revealed central motivations that are revealing for the importance of Islamic Religious Education for Citizenship Education. In the course of the conversation around why Islamic Religious Education teachers decided in favor of their profession, it became clear that supporting the integration, participation and identity development of young people is particularly important to them. This points to a pronounced learner-focus, as the teachers place the individual development process of the pupils at the center of their educational activities and see their Religious Education as a contribution to social participation.

Another important topic concerns the challenges of Religious Education in a social context. In particular, the need to contextualize theological content in order to integrate religious and cultural practices into everyday life in Austrian society became apparent. It is crucial that religious identity does not contradict the principles of a democratic and pluralistic society.

In the following, I will first examine the motivations of Islamic Religious Education teachers based on selected statements. Their personal perspectives and motivations—especially support for integration, participation and finding an identity among young people—take center stage. This is followed by an illustrative passage on the discourse on the expectations of Islamic religious teachers in terms of adaptation, which expresses the challenges of Religious Education in a social context. In the analysis, several teachers from different group discussions have their say, which makes different positions and lines of argumentation visible. From this, findings are derived that are important for Citizenship Education.

4. Results of the Empirical Analysis

The following table (Table 1) shows central elements of Citizenship Education that play an important role in denominational Religious Education. This is not about political education in the narrower sense, but about promoting the fundamental prerequisites for integration, participation and the development of a sense of belonging in an ideologically pluralistic society. The selection of these aspects is based on the recommendations of the Eurydice (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice 2017). The table highlights those dimensions that are particularly relevant for Religious Education, as they contribute to the development of a reflective, responsible attitude and a capacity for engaging in dialogue.

These aspects also correspond to the fundamental understanding of citizenship in Religious Education on which this article is based. They form the analytical basis for the interpretation of the material presented in the following section.

A first dimension of Citizenship Education that is relevant to denominational Religious Education concerns interpersonal interaction and is described as Interacting effectively and constructively with others. This includes the aspects ‘self-confidence’, ‘autonomy’, ‘responsibility’, ‘respect for different opinions or beliefs’, ‘self-awareness’, ‘intercultural skills’ and ‘flexibility or adaptability’. The second dimension, Thinking critically, deals with a critical, reflective attitude. This includes the approach of multi-perspectivity, understanding the present world and questioning.

Acting in a socially responsible manner is the third and central dimension. This includes the principles of ‘solidarity’, ‘respect for other human beings’, ‘sense of belonging’ as well as ‘knowing about or respecting religions and non-religious discrimination’. The fourth and final dimension comprises Acting democratically, which includes ‘participating’ and ‘knowledge of or participation in civil society’.

4.1. Support for the Integration, Participation and Identity Development of Young People

The motives behind the career choices of Islamic Religious Education teachers are diverse and reflect both personal biographies and socio-cultural backgrounds. Many teachers link their decision to their own experiences in the education system, the desire to provide guidance and the motivation to support Muslim children and young people in finding their identity. This reveals central motivational patterns centered around the promotion of integration and participation. This aspect can be linked to the concept of self-awareness and sense of belonging, as teachers encourage pupils to reflect on their identity in a pluralistic environment and develop a sense of belonging.

A recurring theme is the challenge of multiple affiliations. Many students experience tensions between their Muslim identity and their affiliation with Austrian society. Teachers of Religious Education therefore see themselves not only as knowledge brokers, but also as mentors who show young people perspectives and help them develop a sense of belonging. This is where intercultural skills come into play, as teachers help students to reconcile their cultural and religious identities with social values.

The following passages illustrate how teachers perceive their role and what strategies they use to support pupils in this process. A central topic is the handling of identity conflicts, and the question of how Islamic Religious Education can contribute to Citizenship Education.

One teacher explicitly mentions that he would like to show those pupils who have difficulties reconciling their commitment to the Austrian nation with their commitment to Islam ways of overcoming this conflict:

“Perhaps it is also an issue for me that the Muslim young people do not feel marginalized by the society in which they live, and since they also live in Austria, that they also become aware that they can also describe themselves as Austrians, although they find it very difficult to do so.”

(GD5, P23, L. 35–38; GD = group discussion, P = participant number, L = line numbers in the transcript)

This statement articulates the connection with non-discrimination and respect for different opinions or beliefs, as teachers encourage their students to see themselves as equal members of society, regardless of their religious background. At the same time, it shows the relevance of a sense of belonging. Teachers help to create conditions that enable students to identify with society.

Another Religious Education teacher cites a similar motivation for her career choice: In her youth, she says, the approach of being different, but not inferior, helped her. This orientation definitely helped her to consolidate her identity:

“You may be different, but that doesn’t make you bad or anything, and that really helped me a lot in consolidating my identity, and since then I’ve also had the inner desire to be able to pass on this self-confidence, this question of identity, to the children in any case.”

(GD7, P33, L. 69–72)

This demonstrates the relevance of self-confidence as a component of Citizenship Education. Promoting self-confidence helps pupils to actively participate in society and to be sure of their identity.

As a teacher, you should try to set a positive example in dealing with otherness and thus support the formation of a Muslim–Austrian identity in a non-Muslim majority society. These positive factors are offset by the participants’ negative experiences, which can also have a motivating effect. For example, one Religious Education teacher reported that he had developed the need to help pupils who had had bad experiences in their youth or experienced difficulties in their class as a result of his own migration history.

“Because I said I would also like to help people who were in their youth or in their difficult times, just as I experienced it, so at school I was the only foreigner in the class, good.”

(GD4, P19, L. 826–8)

Another teacher also emphasizes the need for support, which he associates with the complex multicultural background of the young people. Overcoming contradictions and the opportunity to help were the reasons for his choice of profession:

“And I have seen young people here, especially the Muslim ones, those with a migrant background, who have their cultures and roots here, but on the other hand simply encounter or grow with the culture and carry this contradiction within them and are in a different state both linguistically and traditionally and culturally than in Turkey, where I was born and grew up. And I have seen that the young people here need support.”

(GD3, P 12, L. 20–25)

This reflection on cultural tensions points to the importance of understanding the present world, as teachers analyze the social challenges of pupils and offer solutions. The self-image of Religious Education teachers that emerges here is that of mentors who show Muslim children and young people perspectives and act as contact persons.

Some of the panelists’ ideas already include possible solutions to the identified challenges. For example, one Religious Education teacher mentioned interreligious dialogue as a possible way of breaking down existing barriers and supporting young Muslim–Austrians in finding their identity.

“I also love doing a lot for society, this mediation between religions somehow, so doing my best to work with children so that our children are also integrated, that our children become proud as Austrians, and I work in this direction.”

(GD1, P1, L. 49–52)

This statement can be linked to ‘participating’ and ‘knowledge of or participation in civil society’, as interreligious dialogue promotes social engagement and an active role in society.

The participants therefore also see it as their task to address the discrepancies and conflicts associated with the complex process of finding and consolidating identity for the pupils in order to support them in their development and raise their self-esteem, which is suppressed by some parts of society. This is directly linked to self-awareness and self-confidence, as Religious Education teachers work specifically to strengthen pupils’ self-confidence and enable them to consciously reflect on their identity. Religious Education is seen as a piece of the mosaic that gives children and young people emotional support and orientation:

“Religious Education in general, regardless of which Religious Education it is, is very important for children’s development. And this world brings something spiritual to the lessons, and the children need that, they lose themselves in this time, in this material time or world.”

(GD1, P6, L. 27–30)

This statement can be linked to ‘sense of belonging’, as Religious Education is seen as a supportive element for identity formation that helps pupils to find their place in a pluralistic society.

Looking at the role of Citizenship Education and Religious Education with regard to the motives of Islamic religious teachers, the following central aspects can be noted.

First, it is evident that many teachers see their task as going beyond the mere transfer of knowledge. The teachers’ motives for working as Islamic Religious Education teachers reflect aspects of all dimensions of Citizenship Education, i.e., interacting effectively and constructively with others, thinking critically, acting in a socially responsive manner as well as the dimension of acting democratically. Teachers see themselves as mentors who support their students in finding their identity and integration. This becomes particularly clear when dealing with multiple affiliations, as many pupils experience the tension between their Muslim identity and their affiliation to Austrian society as a challenge. This is where teachers come in by promoting a sense of belonging and helping young people to recognize themselves both as Muslims and as part of society.

Secondly, the analysis shows that the personal biography of the teachers plays a decisive role. Many are motivated by their own experiences of discrimination or problems in the education system to impart self-confidence and orientation to their pupils. Religion is not seen as an obstacle to social participation, but as a resource that promotes moral values and social responsibility.

Thirdly, it is clear that intercultural dialogue and interreligious exchange are seen as an opportunity to break down social barriers. Teachers of religion emphasize the importance of an open attitude capable of dialogue, which not only strengthens their own religious identity, but also contributes to social cohesion.

To summarize, it can be said that Religious Education in this context goes far beyond a purely denominational education. It contributes to the development of individual identity, to the promotion of the capacity for plurality and to reflected social participation. The statements analyzed convey that the teachers are aware of their social responsibility and actively work to provide their pupils with orientation, self-confidence and a constructive approach to social diversity.

4.2. Challenges of Religious Education in a Social Context

In addition to supporting the integration, participation and identity development of young people, the data in my dissertation also shed light on the contribution of Islamic Religious Education to Citizenship Education, namely the challenge of embedding religious content in the Austrian context. It can be seen that teachers not only impart knowledge but also act as bridge builders between religious traditions and social requirements. Their role requires a reflected positionality in order to shape Religious Education in a pluralistic way and to support pupils in finding their identity.

P6 (f): It’s about, we also have to adapt, it doesn’t matter where you’re from, or it’s easier for you because you grew up here, but we have to adapt to the Austrian system. It’s not, I can’t talk about Islam for example—it’s about the Austrian context, that’s what I wanted to say.

P5 (m): That’s why I also attended [a university course at the University of Vienna], for example. And also when I, Muslims in Europe that’s why I did the integration coach training, so that I also understand this society. […] There are a lot of questions. Well, I can say I can’t answer them. But if I recognize society here well, then I can answer something in this case.

P4 (m): That’s exactly what we actually do. We come from different countries, we have different traditions, different approaches to theology. And what we actually do in our work is to put what we have into the everyday life of Austrian society. […] There is this fatwa [authoritative legal opinion of a religious authority, authors note] in Egypt and Turkey and then we talk about whether it actually fits here or not. And then we say, no, the situation here is actually quite different. You have to think about something else. That’s why I don’t think a single question, from any direction, is unnecessary for me. Especially with the pupils. Every question asked in class is great. There are no unnecessary questions. There may sometimes be stupid questions, but no unnecessary questions. That’s something else.

(GD 1, L. 228–63)

This sequence is based on the question of the necessary or perceived need for integration on the part of Islamic Religious Education teachers with a history of migration in Austria. In this context, a ‘we-they distinction’ is made, whereby ‘we’ refers to those teachers who did not ‘grow up here’ and are consequently at a disadvantage compared to those without a migration background. According to the argument, they have a debt to be discharged, that is, actively seeking to adapt and gain knowledge of the host society is considered a duty. This points to the importance of responsibility, as Religious Education teachers actively reflect on their role and are aware of their responsibility for integration.

This is directly linked to the requirements of Religious Education, in which questions from students about the social context must be answered. Since the ‘Austrian context’ is not part of their socialization or (professional) biographical experience, this adaptation to the Austrian system, the incorporation of religious concerns and the knowledge of the Austrian context thus appear to be part of their professionalization. A direct transfer of Islamic legal opinions that originated in Muslim-influenced countries to Austria is rejected in any case. This is an example of multi-perspectivity, as the teachers recognize that there are different theological interpretations that need to be reflected upon in the respective social context.

This view is reaffirmed several times in the further course, including by P5, who refers to his additional training in the area of integration. The fact that the need to adapt is confirmed and expanded by several participants suggests that the ability to adapt plays a central role in the collective professional self-image. This refers to intercultural skills, as the teachers actively develop strategies to mediate between different cultural and social contexts.

The relevance of the contexts seems to be so important that people start before they begin working in the Austrian system; they try to gather as much in-depth knowledge about Europe and Austria as early as possible. It is important to know “this society too” in order to be able to answer frequently asked questions in practice. Answering questions is therefore evidently—as has been confirmed on various occasions—an integral and important part of the profession of Religious Education teachers.

From this, it can be deduced that teachers of Islamic religion see themselves as mediators or translators between (at least) two cultures—referred to in the quoted passage as ‘societies’. This self-perception emphasizes the existence of differences, because without these, there would be no need for adaptation, mediation or translation services. This points to self-awareness, as the teachers are aware of their biographical background and reflect on the role they play in social discourse.

What the aim of this transfer (‘to integrate what we have into the everyday life of Austrian society’) should be—whether understanding, acceptance or cultural fusion—is not explicitly discussed; the focus is merely on the idea of introducing and adapting something into the Austrian context. These statements could be an indication that the context-dependent teaching of religious–cultural practices is a central orientation. This is where respect for different opinions or beliefs comes into play, as teachers have to mediate between theological convictions and social values.

Looking at the importance of Citizenship Education in relation to the challenges of Religious Education in a social context, the following aspects can be identified.

First, the quoted passage from the group discussion refers to an attempt at reorientation in a changed context. This self-perception as a mediator is closely linked to issues of Citizenship Education, as they have to build a bridge between religious traditions and the demands of a pluralistic, democratic society. This emphasizes the importance of a sense of belonging, as teachers help students to feel part of a pluralistic society.

A second central aspect is the perceived need for teachers with a history of migration to adapt. The ability to integrate Islamic norms and values into the Austrian context is seen as part of their professionalization. Teachers of religion therefore see themselves as mediators of knowledge as well as translators between cultures. This bridging function corresponds to ‘acting democratically’, as it contributes to pupils learning to critically engage with different social and religious positions.

Thirdly, the culture of questioning and dialogue in Religious Education is emphasized as an essential element of reflective Citizenship Education. For the teachers, there are no ‘unnecessary questions’, since every question contributes to the examination of religion and society. This corresponds to the principle of a discursive democracy in which critical reflection and dialogue are encouraged in order to enable active participation in society. This is related to participating, as this open exchange encourages students to actively engage in social discussions.

Finally, the discussion also emphasizes the need for intercultural competence. The teachers recognize that a direct transfer of Islamic legal opinions from Muslim countries to Austria is impossible. Instead, they emphasize the importance of context-related interpretations that are oriented towards social circumstances. This attitude promotes a dynamic and context-sensitive Citizenship Education that focuses not only on citizenship rights and duties, but also on the challenges of cultural and religious diversity. This emphasizes ‘solidarity’, as the teachers are consciously committed to the social participation of pupils with a migrant background and do not see their religious identity as an obstacle but as a resource for social engagement.

The following table (

Table 2. Aspects of Citizenship Education and their relevance for Islamic Religious Education.

Elements of Citizenship Education	Significance in Islamic Religious Education
Sense of belonging	Promotes a sense of belonging and reflects identity conflicts.
Intercultural skills	Building bridges between Islamic tradition and local society.
Respect for different opinions or beliefs	Strengthens the capacity for plurality by discussing different opinions.
Self-awareness; Autonomy (personal initiative)	Promotes reflection on one’s own identity and religious orientation.
Responsibility	Emphasizes responsibility for oneself and the community.
Understanding the present world	Links Islamic content with social issues.
Questioning	Stimulates critical thinking about religion and society and promotes an open learning culture and active questioning.
Flexibility or adaptability	Contextualizes religious content for pluralistic societies.
Multi-perspectivity	Shows theological and social perspectives.
Non-discrimination	Reflects on experiences of discrimination and promotes diversity.
Solidarity	Conveys social responsibility and a sense of community.
Knowing about or respecting religions; Respect for other human beings	Promotes basic respect for others.
Participating	Topics such as social participation and commitment.
Acting in a socially responsible manner	Orientation for responsible behaviour.

) summarizes key elements of Citizenship Education (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice 2017) and illustrates their relevance for Religious Education, particularly in Islamic Religious Education. This includes aspects that were expressed in supporting the integration, participation and identity formation of young people, as well as principles that are important for the challenges of Religious Education in a social context.

5. Concluding Remarks

This analysis demonstrates that Islamic Religious Education can make an important contribution to Citizenship Education. At the same time, it becomes evident that the principles of Citizenship Education play a crucial role in shaping the self-conception and habitual orientation patterns of Islamic religious teachers. As becomes clear from the empirical material, Islamic religious teachers in Austria see themselves not only as imparters of knowledge, but also as companions in identity formation processes. One key finding is that the aspect of self-awareness plays a particularly important role. Identity is not understood one-dimensionally, but as multiple affiliations that encompass both religious and social references. From the teachers’ perspective, identity is not understood in a one-dimensional way, but as shaped by multiple allegiances, including both religious and societal dimensions. Their views reflect a professional commitment to supporting pupils to reflect on these affiliations and to find their place in a pluralistic society.

A central concern of teachers is the contextualization of Islamic content. Religious norms and values cannot be taught in isolation from social reality but must be placed in the context of a democratic and pluralistic society. The teachers themselves play an important role here. Their biographical experiences as individuals, who have often had to deal with questions of belonging, shape their pedagogical attitudes. Intercultural skills are essential, as teachers have to mediate between religious practice and social demands. This reflected positionality enables them not only to impart knowledge to their students, but also to sensitize them to social dynamics and the ability to live with plurality. This corresponds to the objectives of the curriculum for Islamic Religious Education in Austria, which states that it should offer students orientation for their lives and support them in developing a European Muslim identity within the pluralistic Austrian society. In doing so, they should learn to represent their own position and at the same time develop respect for different opinions or beliefs—an essential skill for a democratic society (Curriculum for Islamic Religious Education (BMBWF) 2021).

The analysis also shows that the need for recognition and appreciation inside and outside school is a central motive. Teachers see this as a key condition for promoting belonging and participation, especially among minority students. Without solidarity and mutual recognition, integration remains one-sided and incomplete. At the same time, the discussions recognize that the experience of othering and power asymmetries plays a formative role. Many teachers report that they are repeatedly confronted with othering in their education or in the everyday school life of their pupils. It is therefore crucial that Religious Education not only impart knowledge, but also enable a critical examination of discrimination. This is necessary in order to overcome the dichotomy between perpetrator and victim rhetoric and to enable pupils to take a reflective stance (for more on this, see Weirer et al. 2024). The development of, in particular, multi-perspectivity is essential in order not to lose oneself in a defensive victim position, but to actively participate in social discourses. This means that a critical perspective is not automatically to be understood as demarcation or opposition to society, but as a necessary prerequisite for democratic discourse. According to the teachers’ reflections, questioning and dialogical engagement are integral parts of their teaching practice.

Another relevant factor for the professionalism of Islamic Religious Education teachers is sensitization to plurality and diversity. Islam in Europe is multifaceted, and teachers must not only reflect internal Islamic differences, but also support their students in living in a pluralistic society. This requires flexibility or adaptability that allows different lifestyles to be understood not as opposites, but as parts of a common society (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice 2017).

Only if Religious Education is understood as part of a comprehensive democratic education can a society emerge that perceives diversity not as a threat, but as an opportunity for social cohesion and community engagement. The empirical findings show that Islamic Religious Education teachers can play a key role in this process, provided they are given the space to do so. Based on the perspectives of the teachers interviewed, religious education—when aligned with the principles of citizenship education—has the potential to support participation and contribute to democratic resilience.