The Inculturation of Islamic Rituals Through Confucian-Islamic Synthesis: A Study of Liu Zhi’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars

Abstract

Liu Zhi’s (1664–1734) seminal work The Interpretation of the Five Pillars systematically employs Confucian doctrine to explicate the Five Pillars of Islam. As part of the Ming-Qing cultural movement of “interpreting Islamic scriptures through Confucianism,” Liu assimilated Neo-Confucian philosophical concepts to develop a Sinicized Islamic religious philosophy. Building upon this foundation, he analyzed the Five Pillars through three conceptual lenses: realm theory (境界论), cultivation theory (修养论), and praxis methodology (工夫论). By synthesizing the Confucian cultivation path of “exhausting the mind and knowing human nature” (尽心知性 jin xin zhi xing) with Islamic daily rituals, Liu Zhi developed a distinctive theory of mind-cultivation (心性论 xinxing lun) through ritual practice. This philosophical framework guided Chinese Muslims to transcend external ritual observance towards internal spiritual refinement, as encapsulated in the triad of “self-cultivation, mental purification, and fulfillment of human nature” (修身、清心、尽性). His synthesis of Islamic ritual with Confucian culture maintained fidelity to Islamic teachings while incorporating China’s profound Confucian heritage. Liu Zhi’s efforts in Islamic inculturation provide both a paradigmatic model for the cultural adaptation of religious rituals across traditions and a valuable reference for contemporary construction of Sinicized religious thought. His achievement, an exemplary exercise in interreligious theology, demonstrates how doctrinal fidelity and cultural localization can be harmoniously reconciled through philosophical innovation.

1. Introduction

By means of “inculturation,” foreign religions in China have incorporated core aspects of Chinese cultural practices and ideas while remaining true to their fundamental beliefs and values, thereby integrating into traditional Chinese culture and achieving compatibility with local society. For Islam, which has existed in China for over 1400 years, inculturation has occurred along two primary dimensions: first, formal adaptation through selective incorporation of traditional Chinese cultural elements to ensure sociocultural compatibility; second, ideological synthesis through philosophical integration that imbues Islamic ritual practices with Chinese cultural significance to achieve harmonious coexistence with Chinese civilization (Jin 1995). This study examines how ritual inculturation facilitates mutual interpretation and synthesis between China’s major religions and traditional culture, with focus on Liu Zhi’s 18th-century treatise The Interpretation of the Five Pillars as a paradigmatic case. Through textual analysis of this Ming-Qing transitional work (1368–1912), this essay investigates Liu’s methodology of permeating Islamic practice with a Confucian cultural framework, revealing the mechanisms that enable a profound synthesis between Islamic faith and Chinese culture. This historical exploration offers contemporary insights for advancing the inculturation of religions in modern China through culturally grounded hermeneutical approaches.

After consideration of the reception, structure, and significance of Liu Zhi’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars, Section 2 of this paper explores Liu’s Sinicized Islamic creation theology as the theoretical groundwork for the Five Pillars, Section 3 then traces Liu’s explication of the Five Pillars as Sinicized cultivation practices, and Section 4 finally shows how Liu harmonizes the Five Pillars with Confucian cultivation philosophy through a heart-mind theory centered on self-cultivation (修身), purification of the heart-mind (清心), and the realization of primordial nature (尽性). A brief conclusion then outlines the importance of Liu Zhi’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars for the inculturation of religion in China.

2. The Inculturation of Islamic Ritual Practices and the Interpretation of the Five Pillars

Contemporary Chinese research on the inculturation of Islamic rituals has predominantly focused on localized religious practices and culturally adapted interpretations of specific rites such as ritual prayer (salāt) and fasting (ṣawm). (Min and Gao 2019; Feng 2017; Y. Ding 2015). Studies of Liu Zhi, however, have largely concentrated on the ethics of his Tianfang Dianli (天方典礼, Ritual and Cosmology in Chinese Islam: A Neo-Confucian Synthesis) or the metaphysics of his Tianfang Xingli (天方性理, The Nature and Principle of the Divine Direction), especially his theories about heart-mind cultivation (xinxing 心性) and cosmology (Ma 2020; Ji 2015). By contrast, Liu’s Wugong Shiyi (五功释义, The Interpretation of Five Pillars of Islam) has yet to receive substantial contemporary scholarly attention and, when it has, has been narrowly characterized as an experimental effort to reinterpret the Five Pillars of Islam through Confucian philosophy (Mi 2020, p. 163)—this, in spite of the fact that Qing-era scholars regarded the text as a “clarification of Islamic rites” (mingjiao zhi li 明教之礼), a canonical work on Islamic ritual praxis (Wan 2007, p. 598), and a seminal attempt to interpret the Five Pillars through Confucian theories of human nature and cosmic principle (xingli 性理) (Yang 1993, p. 235).1

Indeed, Liu Zhi’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars—alternately known as The Ritual Code: Interpretation of the Five Pillars (礼书五功释义) or Yizhai’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars (一斋五功释义)—is a comprehensive effort at interpreting Islam’s Five Pillars through the lens of Confucian philosophy.2 Liu undertakes a multilayered analysis of the Five Pillars, exploring their theological origins, functional purposes, performative requirements, and underlying metaphysical principles, thereby synthesizing Islamic doctrine within a Confucian framework. Structured into 63 chapters, which symbolically correspond to the number of years of Prophet Muhammad’s life, the treatise is arranged into three main sections. The initial seven chapters establish the Five Pillars as manifestations of “cosmic discipline” (tiandao gongfu 天道功夫), spiritual mechanisms designed to illuminate humanity’s divine origin and to remove existential obstructions to transcendence. The next twenty-five chapters (chs. 8–32) systematically exegete each ritual obligation using a fivefold analytical model—ceremonial form (仪), juridical norms (法), ethical significance (义), philosophical principles (理), and empirical verification (证)—to reconcile Islamic devotional practices with Confucian theories of nature and principle (性理学说), showing how each ritual practice constitutes both a theological imperative and an experiential validation of divine reality. The final thirty-one chapters (chs. 33–63) integrate Islamic spirituality and Confucian cultivation, aligning Islamic ritual purity requirements with Neo-Confucian self-refinement practices to construct a comprehensive theory of ritually mediated spiritual perfection. By offering this conceptual bridge between Islamic acts of worship (‘ibādāt) and Confucian self-cultivation (修养 xiuyang), Liu Zhi redefines ritual performance as a dual process of external obedience and internal transformation, enabling Chinese Muslims to navigate their dual identities as both faithful adherents of Islam and culturally rooted members of Confucian society.

Liu Zhi posited that Islamic doctrine and practice fundamentally cohered with Confucian theories of nature and principle (性理), achieving “conceptual coherence and ethical compatibility” (理通而义合).3 Rigorously upholding Islam’s core beliefs and doctrines, his The Interpretation of the Five Pillars synthesizes the Five Pillars with Confucian philosophy, transforming Islamic rituals into modalities of Chinese moral cultivation and spiritual practice. His Confucian reinterpretation of Islamic ritual obligations, therefore, substantively advanced the integration of Islam with Chinese sociocultural frameworks, marking a seminal achievement in the Islamic-Confucian synthesis (yi ru hui tong 伊儒会通).

3. “Guiding Humanity in Self-Cultivation to Return to Primordial Unity”: The Scriptural Foundations of the Five Pillars

During the Ming-Qing period, Chinese Muslim literati such as Liu Zhi drew on the classical Chinese texts and Song-Ming “nature-principle” philosophy to reinterpret Islamic cosmology and theological anthropology for Chinese audiences, establishing a theoretical basis for a Sinicized Islamic ritual system. As the synthesizing master of this Islamic-Confucian thought, Liu Zhi articulated Islamic cosmogony as follows:

From the Divine Originator’s essence flow,

Ten thousand threads of cosmic law aglow—

Through descent into seed, ascent through fruit,

From earth’s deep core to heaven’s absolute.

The Macrocosm’s dance, descent then rise,

Mirrors the Microcosm’s path through skies:

Mortal frame emerges from dust’s domain,

Spirit returns where form cannot remain.

Great World ascends through vessels manifest,

Lesser World transcends where principles invest—

Subtler the flight from clay to boundless Whole,

In the Soul’s return lies the perfect goal.

(Z. Liu [1710] 2005, p. 87)4

Here, Liu Zhi posits that all entities in the cosmos originate from the True Master (al-Ḥaqq), with “descent, ascent, coming, and return” (nuzūl, ṣuʿūd, majīʾ, and rujūʿ) as the fundamental principles governing the cosmos through divine sovereignty. The “Greater World” (al-ʿālam al-kabīr) denotes the celestial-terrestrial realm and all phenomenal existence, while the “Lesser World” (al-ʿālam al-ṣaghīr) refers to humanity (Jin 2010, p. 111). This cosmological framework of “descent-ascent-coming-return” derives from Liu’s interpretation of the Islamic concept of eschatological return (maʿād). The Greater World initiates its cosmic trajectory through intangible spiritual principles (al-laṭāʾif al-mujarrada) in the phase of descent, ultimately attaining its apotheosis in material manifestation (al-ashkāl al-maḥsūsa) in the phase of ascent. Conversely, the Lesser World (humanity) commences its existential journey in corporeal form during the phase of coming, ultimately achieving spiritual perfection in the phase of return to the Divine. Thus, Liu’s cosmology establishes an ontological dichotomy: the Greater World progresses from formless principles to material completeness, whereas the Lesser World evolves from physical embodiment to spiritual transcendence. Liu, therefore, concludes that the Lesser World’s cyclical journey of “coming-return” possesses greater metaphysical subtlety than the Greater World’s linear progression of “descent-ascent.”

Although this cosmic process is grounded in the Islamic concept of eschatological return (maʿād), Liu innovatively employed traditional Chinese concepts such as qi (气), taiji (太极, the great ultimate or polarity), yin-yang (阴阳), and wuxing (五行, the five phases: wood, fire, earth, metal, water) to interpret it, especially in providing a cosmological and cosmogonical foundation for the Five Pillars (W. Ding 2018):

When form and qi manifest, the Heavenly Dao withdraws.

As material endowments multiply, Primordial Truth dims—

Clarity shrouded, purity sullied, communion obstructed.

Humanity, ignorant of its celestial origin,

Stumbles in returning.

Thus the Five Pillars—Shahādah, Salāt, Sawm, Zakāt, Ḥajj—

Guide mortals to self-cultivation and reversion to Primordial Unity.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4555)5

Here, Liu theorizes that as human corporeal form is gradually completed through qi’s dynamic operation, truth is obscured and communion is obstructed. Nevertheless, the Five Pillars offer a ritual roadmap to guide practitioners back to their ontological source, restoring the primordial human-Divine nexus through ritualized spiritual alchemy.

Although Liu Zhi grounded the observance of the Five Pillars in Islamic creation theology, he articulated their salvific function using Chinese scholastic discourse:

The Shahādah (nian 念) awakens knowledge of humanity’s ultimate destination, the Salāt (li 礼) actualizes the path toward this return, the Sawm (zhai 斋) severs material attachments, the Zakāt (ke 课) cultivates self-transcendence, and the Ḥajj (chao 朝) fulfills the divine mandate to return to Truth. Through these disciplines, the cosmic order (天道) attains perfection.

(ibid.)6

Here, the Shahādah orients consciousness toward divine teleology, Salāt guides progression along the return-path, Sawm liberates practitioners from material dependencies, Zakāt cultivates ethical refinement through ego dissolution, and Ḥajj culminates the entire trajectory through existential reintegration with the Divine Origin, the consummation of humanity’s primordial covenant (mīthāq). Thus, the Five Pillars offer a graduated spiritual path progressing from cognitive recognition of Divine Truth (知真) to ontological unification (归真) with it, from apprehending “the Real” to returning to “the Real.” They provide a concrete path of “returning to the Origin,” which is achieved through renouncing material desires, effacing oneself, and exhaustively investigating human nature and cosmic principles, ultimately attaining reunion with the Heavenly Dao.

Liu Zhi also drew on the Chinese philosophical concepts of qi and wuxing (five phases) to articulate Islamic cosmological and anthropological doctrines:

Humans are endowed through Four Phases at birth,

Perfected by Five through cosmic accord:

Essence transforms as water, blood becomes earth,

Warmth embodies fire, while qi drives transformation’s force.

When embryonic form begins its course, qi-fire union nurtures wood’s vital source,

Earth-water fusion forges metal’s hardening course.

Through bone’s metal, flesh’s wood, essence’s tide,

Five Phases dance with qi as cosmic guide—

This conscious flame where spirit doth reside.

(ibid., p. 4557)7

In the primordial state of endowment (fuzhi 赋质), seminal essence (jing 精) corresponds to water, blood to earth, and bodily warmth to fire, with qi functioning as the dynamic agent of morphogenesis. During morphological formation (changing 成行), qi interacts with fire to generate wood (symbolizing vascular and muscular development), and earth and water coalesce to produce metal (osseous structures). Qi operates throughout human gestation and development as both fundamental element and motive force, ultimately achieving the synthesis of consciousness and spiritual discernment known as lingjue (灵觉). Thus, Liu Zhi employed the Five Phases of Chinese cosmology to provide a Sinicized epistemological framework for the Islamic doctrine of divine creation contained in Qur’an (23:12–14).

Liu Zhi also used this Five Phases cosmology to establish a metaphysical foundation for moral cultivation, specifically the practice of the Five Virtues (wude 五德):

Each Phase bears distinct nature and grace:

Fire ascends with luminous virtue’s trace;

Water descends, humility its base;

Wood flows free, simplicity its face;

Metal stands firm, steadfastness its place;

Earth nurtures all, serene obedience its space.

Virtues thrive when qi finds balanced state,

Through nourishment, each finds its middle gate.

(ibid.)8

In this framework, human constitution in terms of the Five Phases possesses inherent ethical potential: luminosity (gaoming 高明), humility (qianxun 谦逊), simplicity (zhipu 质朴), steadfastness (wenzhong 稳重), and serene obedience (jingshun 静顺). The harmonization of these virtues depends on qi’s regulated circulation, which maintains cosmic and moral equilibrium. However, Liu cautioned:

When Phases shift from balanced course,

Selfish desires spring from distorted source—

All evils bloom where qi lacks nourished force.

Five Pillars [wugong]

Restore qi’s flow through sacred acts,

Returning nature to central tracts.

(ibid.)9

Here, Liu reinterprets the Five Pillars of Islam as the self-cultivation techniques of Confucianism. Creedal affirmation (shahādah), daily prayer (salāt), fasting (sawm), almsgiving (zakāt), and pilgrimage (ḥajj) become methodologies for “nourishing qi” (yangqi), rectifying the psychosomatic system and actualizing the Five Virtues. Thus, Liu grounded the Five Pillars in the discourse of Confucian self-cultivation (L. Chen 2022).

Liu Zhi achieved this Sinicized interpretation of Islamic creation theology by assimilating and transforming the ontological concepts of Chinese philosophy, particularly those from Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. By integrating the doctrines of li (principle), qi (vital energy), and wuxing (five phases) into the Islamic doctrine of divine creation, he demonstrated how these Confucian concepts manifest Allah’s creative power (qudra). These cosmological and anthropological theories remain fundamentally Islamic in their axiomatic principles yet are articulated through Confucian epistemological paradigms and terms. Thus, Liu’s conceptual synthesis provided the theoretical groundwork for elucidating the ethical dimensions of the Five Pillars and their role in spiritual cultivation practices.10

4. Liu Zhi’s Sinicized Interpretation of the “Five Pillars”

To explicate the Five Pillars as ontological return to Divine Reality, Liu Zhi developed a Confucian-Islamic hermeneutical framework with five dimensions: ceremonial form (仪), juridical norms (法), ethical significance (义), philosophical principles (理), and empirical verification (证). Ceremonial form (yi) integrates Islamic worship practices with Confucian ceremonial propriety. Juridical norms manifest the epistemological role of Islamic Law in “distinguishing heavenly principles from human desires” (Z. Liu [1709] 1988, p. 34),11 establishing normative boundaries for spiritual cultivation. Ethical significance transforms bodily discipline into a vehicle for the realization of divine unity. Philosophical principles root ritual obligations in Neo-Confucian investigation of cosmic patterns (ibid., p. 49).12 And empirical verification ascertains the presence of the Divine, completing soteriological progression from formal observance to metaphysical certitude (Z. Liu [1709] 1988, p. 68).13

Liu Zhi uses the term niān (念) for the First Pillar, the recitation of the Shahādah, the Islamic declaration of faith: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” Interpreting niān through the lens of Chinese character composition, he defined it as “the heart’s orientation toward the Lord.” This aligns with the first Chinese dictionary, Shuowen Jiezi (说文解字), whose editor, Xu Shen (许慎, 58–147 CE), defined “niān” as “constant contemplation” (Tang 2018, p. 2015). For Liu Zhi, niān possesses both corporeal and spiritual dimensions, consisting of not only the physical act of continual recitation of the Shahādah but also an attitude of reverent mindfulness through perpetual remembrance:14

Forever mindful in heart, ever upon the lips,

bound close to the soul, sincerity grips.

In reverent praise, virtues extolled,

each word, each act, the Way upholds.

Fearing a step that strays afar,

the heart remembers, the tongue ajar.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4558)15

Liu Zhi’s cosmological framework posits that humanity’s primordial nature (先天之性，xian tian zhi xing) becomes obscured by acquired desires (后天人欲 hou tian ren yu). Using the analogy of a mirror, he articulates the Neo-Confucian dyad of Heavenly Principle (天理 tianli) and human desires (renyu) as follows:

The heart-mind resembles a mirror—facing one reality necessitates turning from its opposite. When oriented toward tianli, renyu finds no entry; when inclined to renyu, tianli withdraws its presence. Herein lies the demarcation of right/wrong, good/evil, and the cosmic process of transformation (zaohua).

(ibid.)16

This call to “preserve Heavenly Principle and eliminate human desire” stands at the core of Song and Ming Confucian philosophy, famously summed up by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) as follows:

Confucius spoke of “conquering the self to return to propriety”; The Doctrine of the Mean speaks of “achieving harmony,” “honoring virtue,” and “inquiring into knowledge”; The Great Learning speaks of “manifesting bright virtue”; and The Book of Documents states, “The human heart is perilous, the Way-centered heart subtle—hold it steadfastly, with utmost purity and unity.” In all the words of the sages, their ultimate aim is simply to illuminate Heavenly Principle and to subdue human desire.

(Zhu Xi, in Li 1983, p. 207)17

Liu ingeniously synthesizes this Neo-Confucian framework and Islamic praxis by correlating the realization of tianli to the ritual of niān. As the primary Pillar, Shahādah becomes the psychosomatic mechanism for “perpetually orienting the heart-mirror toward Heavenly Principle through triune remembrance: bodily recitation, verbal constancy, and mental devotion.” Through this disciplined practice, human nature progressively achieves perfection by subduing renyu and approximating the Divine Agent.

Liu Zhi took human nature (性 xing) to be an innate endowment that can be apprehended by the heart-mind (心 xin). Drawing on Sinicized Buddhist metaphors, he conceptualized spiritual cultivation through niān as mirror polishing—“The heart-mind obscured like a tarnished mirror, Requires remembrance’s (niān) disciplined friction to clarify”18—positing: “Remembrance signifies unbroken awareness of our ontological origin—the body’s genesis, nature’s fountainhead, the Creator’s primordial reality (本然 benran)” (Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4558).19 Through the ritual of Shahādah, humans “remember” their material and spiritual derivation from the Divine Agent. Because the Creator possesses “supreme goodness” (zhishan 至善), “absolute purity” (zhiqing 至清), and “perfect truth” (zhizhen 至真), He can only be apprehended through niān’s purgative effects of “eliminating wickedness” (wu’e 无恶), “purging defilement” (wuran 无染), and “transcending illusion” (wuwang 无妄). Only by “restraining self and severing worldly attachments” (keji juewu 克己绝物) can practitioners achieve mystical union, realizing ultimate return:

Through Shahādah, transcendence is won—

Beyond self and objects, return to origin begun,

Fulfilling cosmic cycles’ end and dawn.

Shahādah reveals an ideal spiritual state in which there is “no separation between person and the Creator.” Thus, it is not only the first of the Five Pillars but also the foundation of moral self-cultivation, the means of “acting with integrity and treating others with sincerity” and “fostering a harmonious social order through principled governance and daily affairs.” It is “the foremost duty in the pursuit of the Way.” Shahādah is, therefore, the bridge between faith and practice. To Liu, this is the reason why it is the first of the Five Pillars, the sole initiation ritual for entry into Islam (Frankel 2011, p. 120).

Liu Zhi conceptualizes the Second Pillar, daily prayer (li 礼), as the embodied act of approaching the Divine, as encapsulated in his dictum: “Bai [拜, prostration] is the body’s orientation toward the Sovereign Lord [真主]” (Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4559).20 He structures prayer into two interlocking dimensions: the preliminary conditions (tiaoli 条例), which must precede the ritual act, and the ritual postures (yize 仪则), which define its physical execution. The preliminary conditions encompass six prerequisites: ablution (muyu 沐浴) to purify the body, donning clean garments (shengfu 盛服) to signify reverence, purifying the prayer space (jiechu 洁处) to create a sanctified environment, observing the prescribed time (zhengshi 正时) to align with cosmic rhythms, aligning toward the qibla (zhengxiang 正向) to symbolize spiritual direction, and cultivating sincere intention (liyi 立意) to unify heart and action (ibid.).21 These ritual postures, in turn, unfold through four sequential acts: standing upright (li 立) with dignified composure, bowing (gong 躬) in humble submission, prostrating (kou 叩) in ultimate surrender, and kneeling (gui 跪) in contemplative repose. Liu emphasizes that these postures are not mechanical repetitions but an integrated liturgy: “The union of these postures constitutes a single prostration; the completion of all prostrations fulfills the prayer” (ibid.).22 Central to Liu’s interpretation is the demand for absolute mental and physical devotion. He insists that prayer requires “the spirit’s presence within the heart, inner awe matched by outward composure” (ibid.).23 One must prevent distractions, wandering gazes, restless movements, and extraneous sounds, since such transgressions negate the ritual’s validity, necessitating its repetition. This rigor stems from his cosmological vision, wherein prayer transcends mere ritual obligation as a soteriological mechanism for restoring humanity’s primordial nature (benran 本然). According to Liu, the human soul descends from the realm of transcendent principles (li shi 理世)—a domain of pure metaphysical order—into the realm of material forms (xiang shi 象世),24 traversing seven hierarchical stages corresponding to the elemental forces (qi, water, fire, earth, metal, wood, and fire) (Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4559).25 Each stage further veils the soul’s original purity, binding it to worldly attachments. Prayer functions as an ascetic countermovement: “Through prayer, one transcends worldly attachments to recover the primordial state. When the primordial is restored, the adventitious dissolves—this is the essence of benran” (ibid., p. 4560).26 By synthesizing Islamic Salāt with Neo-Confucian metaphysics, Liu reconfigures prayer as both a ladder of divine proximity (“a stairway to nearness with the Lord”) and a path of ontological return (“a route to restoring the origin”) (ibid., p. 4559).27

Liu Zhi also employs traditional Chinese conceptions of natural harmony to analogize the spiritual significance of Islamic prayer postures, calling them embodied practices of “returning to the origin and drawing near to the Sovereign” (guiyuan jinzhu 归原近主):

Thus, standing [zhan 站] symbolizes the human form, upright between heaven and earth;

Bowing [gong 躬] mirrors the posture of birds and beasts, facing earth while bearing heaven;

Prostration [kou 叩] emulates plants, with head and body bowed to the ground;

Kneeling [gui 跪] evokes mountains and minerals, seated in tranquil stillness.

The alternation between rising and descending embodies water and fire;

The fluid transitions between postures mirror the dynamism of qi;

The progression from movement to stillness reenacts the return to primordial unity.

By layering these symbolic correspondences and transcending them through ritual,

We grasp the substantive meaning of returning to the origin and nearing the Sovereign.

(ibid., p. 4560)28

In this framework, each prayer posture—standing, bowing, prostration, kneeling—and their sequential transitions are imbued with cosmological symbolism: standing represents vertical alignment with cosmic order; bowing, the humility of creatures between heaven and earth; prostration, the submission of flora to terrestrial forces; and kneeling, the stability of geological formations. The rhythmic alternation between postures—rising and descending—symbolizes the interplay of water (descending) and fire (ascending), with the transitions between them denoting the continual flow of qi. The progression from dynamic movement to meditative stillness mirrors the cosmic cycle of “returning to the primordial” (fuchu 复初), wherein all phenomena revert to their origin. Liu also draws on the Neo-Confucian binaries of principle/vital force (li-qi 理气) and movement/stillness (dong-jing 动静) to articulate a cosmology of divine creation and return in which the prayer postures, in their sequential unfolding, replicate the generative process of the cosmos—just as all beings emerge from the Divine’s creative act (zhenzhu de chuangzao 真主的创造), so too do they return to the Divine through the ritual cycle of prayer. By performing these postures with mindful intentionality, the worshiper enters a state of Confucian-inspired heart-mind cultivation (xinxing xiuyang 心性修养), experientially apprehending the cosmic law that governs the emergence and return of all things. Through disciplined performance, the worshiper transcends mere ritual compliance, achieving what Liu calls “embodying the Sovereign” (shen hu zhu ye 身乎主也)—a state where corporeal practice aligns with celestial principle, dissolving the boundary between human action and divine ordinance. By grounding Islamic ritual in Chinese philosophy, Liu constructs a transcultural spirituality in which prayer is both a reenactment of cosmic genesis and a path of ethical cultivation.

Liu Zhi defines the Third Pillar, zhai 斋 (sawm, fasting), as a sacred act of aligning one’s primordial nature (xing 性) with the Divine, asserting: “Fasting is the soul’s communion with the Sovereign” (主). He prescribes its observance as an annual month-long discipline, during which practitioners abstain from all food and drink from first light until sunset (“refraining at daybreak and breaking fast at nightfall”), refrain from sexual relations, suspend worldly engagements, and quiet restless thoughts (ibid., p. 4562).29 This regimen serves as not only physical abstention but also holistic purification of body and spirit, demanding that practitioners “reflect on deeds, cleanse transgressions, and achieve solitary union with the Absolute beyond selfhood.” Liu moralizes fasting a method of “restraining desires and disciplining conduct” (zhi yu jian xing 制欲检行), considering it a safeguard against wayward impulses (ibid.).30 By curbing primal appetites—particularly for sustenance and sensual indulgence—the practitioner transcends the tyranny of physical cravings so that the mind can attain clarity (xin ming 心明) and the heart can cultivate unwavering devotion. This process of self-mastery severs attachments to worldly distractions (chen yu 尘欲), enabling the soul to refocus on moral righteousness (dao yi 道义) and spiritual refinement (尘欲之事远绝，道义之事精虔).

Liu Zhi posits that human beings are constituted by three ontological dimensions—the “body” (shen 身), “heart-mind” (xin 心), and “primordial nature” (xing 性)—all three of which are engaged in religious praxis. For both Islam and the Chinese tradition, then, the “heart” is the spiritual organ that is specific to the highest possibilities of human nature, especially the understanding of things as they truly are. (Murata 2000, p. 36). In the case of fasting, one curbs both external desires (such as appetite and sensuality) and internal cravings, thereby enabling the “heart-mind” to apprehend its “primordial nature,” a state called “the lucid heart-mind revealing the primordial nature” (xin ming xing jian 心明性见). Liu conceptualizes carnal needs (food and sexuality) as postnatal exigencies, as opposed to the “primordial nature,” which manifests the Divine’s pre-eternal effulgence. Human entrapment in these postnatal desires, he contends, obscures this innate nature, obstructing the soul’s return to its divine origin (guigen fuming 归根复命). Fasting, therefore, functions as a discipline to “suppress postnatal sentiments and unveil the primordial nature,” allowing one to “recall the primordial condition, akin to returning to pre-existence”:

When postnatal affections are restrained,

The primordial nature shines forth;

When primordial splendor is recalled,

Nearness to the Lord’s essence is restored.

Thus it is said: Fasting belongs to Me,

And My recompense draws intimacy near.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4564)31

By restraining these “postnatal affections,” body and mind are united in harmonious submission to the celestial mandate. This ascetic rigor culminates in “utter eradication of selfishness, complete oblivion of ego and object” (己私克尽，物我全忘), until “no worldly matter occupies the heart-mind” (不纳一物于心焉).

The Fourth Pillar, Almsgiving (zakāt), termed ke (课), is charitable obligation that is given to the Divine but redistributed to the impoverished:

Zakāt dedicates material wealth to the Divine.

Though the Lord has no need of riches,

Their distribution to the impoverished

Becomes an act of devotion to Him.

(ibid.)32

Invoking the Yijing (Book of Changes), Liu grounds the significance of Zakāt in cosmic harmony: “Diminishing excess to augment deficiency, restraining self to share sweetness—This is the way of humane virtue.”33 He also synthesizes Zakāt with the ideals of the Confucian junzi (noble person), framing it as an expression of the chief Confucian virtue of ren (benevolence), which is essential to ethical cultivation:

Zakāt embodies the supreme method to emulate the Divine,

To love others, and transcend self and materiality.

The Lord, in His perfect benevolence, gives without restraint;

By giving ourselves, we mirror His boundless grace.

The people are one with my being—thus shared love is natural law;

To distribute sweetness and universal benefit

Is to cherish others as our own flesh.

Relinquishing possessions erases attachment to “mine”;

Renouncing ownership dissolves fixation on “things.”

Only when the heart drowns in selfishness

Do benevolence and justice fail to arise.

Yet through Zakāt, four virtues converge as one.

(ibid., p. 4565)34

Here, Liu anchors his argument in the Confucian cornerstone of ren (仁, benevolence), positing the Divine as the ultimate embodiment of this virtue. All worldly blessings, he asserts, originate from the Lord’s munificence. By performing Zakāt, practitioners actualize two dimensions of cultivation: ti zhu (体主, emulating the Divine), alignment with cosmic generosity, and ai ren (爱人, loving others), equitable redistribution. Zakāt’s systematic relinquishment of wealth, therefore, becomes an ascetic exercise to “forget the self” (wang ji 忘己) and “transcend materiality” (wang wu 忘物), thereby actualizing the Confucian ideal of the junzi (君子)—a noble person whose conduct harmonizes heavenly principle with earthly compassion.

The Fifth Pillar, Pilgrimage (ḥajj), which Liu Zhi terms chao (朝), constitutes the culmination of all the Pillars: “Through Ḥajj, body, mind, and possessions all return to the Divine, Restoring the primordial covenant of creation” (ibid.).35 Ḥajj achieves ritual completion by synthesizing ascetic discipline and metaphysical return. Drawing on the Neo-Confucian Song-Ming lexicon, Liu emphasizes the Pilgrimage’s dual function of “dissolving selfish inclinations” (rong ke ji si 融克己私) and “transcending materiality and self” (jue wu wang ji 绝物忘己), together which ultimately realize the state of “union between human and Divine” (ren zhu heyi 人主合一)—a true restoration of the soul’s origin:

The perfected pilgrim directs both body and heart toward the Sacred.

Departing the homeland of base desires,

Crossing boundaries of worldly attachments,

Reaching the pass of ritual propriety,

Renewed through purifying ablutions,

Shedding garments of human craving,

Cloaked in precepts of heavenly principle,

Ascending the mountain of luminous wisdom,

Gathering at the plain of eternal peace,

Sacrificing beasts of carnal impulse—

Only then may one enter the Sanctum of Divine Proximity,

Touch the suspended stone of cosmic subtlety,

Prostrate at the sanctified station of union,

And merge with the transfigured Celestial Kaaba.

(ibid., p. 4567)36

Here, Liu reimagines the elements of the Ḥajj through Chinese cosmological metaphors: the pilgrim’s hometown symbolizes the realm of selfish desires, and each ritual act of the Ḥajj—ablution (ghusl), donning the ritual garment (iḥrām), symbolic stoning, and circumambulation—maps to a stage of ethical-spiritual purification. Thus Liu makes the Ḥajj intelligible to Chinese literati as both a physical journey and a paradigm of moral cultivation.

For Liu Zhi, the essence of chao lies in gui (归, reversion): “Pilgrimage is termed ‘return’—in this single word, All meanings are consummated.” This return is grounded in cosmic inevitability as humanity’s natural trajectory:

Human existence constitutes but a sojourn;

All travelers must eventually revert.

We come for purpose, fulfill our duty,

Then attain the homeward path.

(Ibid.)37

Earthly life is but a transient lodging (lü zhi yu 旅之寓); the pilgrim’s ultimate aim lies in recognizing the Divine Origin (shizhu 识主) and fulfilling the covenant of return (fuming guizhen 复命归真). Thus Ḥajj transcends geographical ritual: “The pilgrimage merely points to the destination, urging return to what naturally must be. Why compel what cosmic law already ordains?”

Liu distinguishes between formal observance (xingji zhi chao 行迹之朝)—the physical journey to Mecca—and fundamental spiritual orientation (wuxing zhi chao 无形之朝):

Monthly rituals mark bodily pilgrimage,

But formless devotion constitutes its core.

Turn inward with sincerity:

Then every moment becomes pilgrimage,

Every place a sacred precinct.

In timeless devotion, no thought strays from the Divine;

In boundless orientation, no act defies His command.

(ibid.)38

Through this interiorization, Ḥajj is transformed into continual ethical cultivation.39 The pilgrim’s every breath becomes liturgical—a “turning toward the Divine with awe” (zhuan lin yu zhu 转凛于主) and a “conformity to celestial ordinance” (zunzhu er xing 遵主而行). The mechanics of ritual are reframed as daily disciplines: “To assess one’s pilgrimage, Examine quotidian practice—Scrutinize each gesture, each motion.” Thus Islamic ʿibādāt (worship) merges with Confucian gongfu (功夫, self-cultivation).

5. “Comprehending the Subtle and Manifest Principles”: A Xinxing-Theory Exposition of Islamic Ritual Praxis

Liu Zhi harmonizes the Five Pillars with Confucian cultivation theory, proposing a ritualized heart-mind theory centered on three core principles: self-cultivation (修身), purification of the heart-mind (清心), and fulfilling primordial nature (尽性). Quoting Mencius, he writes:

He who has exhausted all his mental constitution knows his nature

Knowing his nature, he knows Heaven.

To preserve one’s mental constitution,

and nourish one’s nature,

is the way to serve Heaven.

(Mencius, in Legge 1861, p. 324)40

Liu integrates this Confucian xinxing (心性, heart-mind) theory into Islamic cosmology, positing that human nature (xing 性) originates from the Divine’s manifestation and, therefore, is inherently perfect and benevolent. After birth, however, humans exist through the “heart-mind” (xin 心), with worldly greed and desire corrupting their innate purity. Liu, therefore, establishes a cultivation framework for the restoration of the primordial state: self-cultivation to discipline the body, purification of the heart-mind to eradicate defilements, fulfillment of primordial nature to achieve union with the Ultimate Reality. This heart-mind theory of cultivation underpins the Five Pillars, which, according to Liu, transcends ritual formalism, representing a soteriological path integral to ontological refinement. His systematic exposition employs a rhetorical sequence of appositions to delineate their multivalent significance:

The Five Pillars constitute the threshold of virtue, the celestial staircase of ascent, the passageway to subtle truths, the quintessence of cosmic phenomena, the filtration of selfish desires, the whetstone for tempering disposition, the fountainhead of expiation, and the vessel traversing existence’s ocean. In the cultivation of corporeal discipline and nurturance of primordial nature, no attainment of perfection occurs absent this path.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4572)41

The Five Pillars are, therefore, the axial foundation for apprehending the numinous dialectic between the celestial and human realms (tianren zhi ji 天人之际) and for actualizing individual ethical perfection. This interpretation of Liu’s emerges dialectically from, on the one hand, his immersion in the Naqshbandi Sufi tradition, wherein ritual acts serve as spiritual stations (maqāmāt) for the annihilation of egoic consciousness (fanāʾ al-nafs), and, on the other, his innovative Sinicized exegesis, which imbues these practices with metaphysical profundity through Confucian-Daoist cosmological paradigms.

For Liu Zhi, the first core principle, self-cultivation (修身 xiu shen) embodies the significance of the Five Pillars:

The Five Pillars pervade the entire being without omission. Some acts engage the heart-mind, some discipline the physical form, some regulate the limbs, some govern the head, and some purify the senses of sight, hearing, speech, and smell. Each bodily constituent bears its particular transgressions; the Pillars function to purge these imperfections. Thus, the Five Pillars epitomize holistic purification.

(ibid., p. 4573)42

In this framework, the Five Pillars transcend mere ritual obligations, functioning as somatic and noetic disciplines that purify every corporeal organ and cognitive faculty. Drawing from Sufi psycho-spiritual paradigms and Confucian self-rectification traditions, Liu conceptualizes them as instruments for aligning the physical and psychological dimensions of human existence with the celestial mandate (tianming 天命). Their transformative efficacy arises through cun cheng (存诚, preserving sincerity) and zhi jing (执敬, maintaining reverence), ascetic practices that enable perpetual remembrance of the Divine. By purging external transgressions and cultivating inner contemplative focus, practitioners progressively disentangle consciousness from worldly attachments, achieving what Liu terms “abiding in the presence of the Real” (xin cun zhenzhu 心存真主). “Cultivation of the body” can, therefore, be understood as a holistic refinement of moral and ethical character. In Islamic terms, it is to eliminate base character traits (safsāf al-akhlāq) and to acquire noble character traits (makārim al-akhlāq) (Murata 2000, p. 39).

The second core principle, heart-mind purification (清心 qingxin), involves the capacity of the Five Pillars to elevate practitioners from corporeal discipline to transcendent spiritual refinement. Through the Pillars, individuals transcend material desires, cultivate mental austerity, engage in contemplative devotion, and disentangle from worldly attachments, progressively attaining divine gnosis (maʿrifah)—a process Liu calls “exhausting principles to fulfill nature” (qiongli jinxing 穷理尽性), delineating each Pillar’s spiritual efficacy as follows:

Shahādah: “Recitation disciplines the soul [nian ge shen 念格神].”

Ṣalāt: “Prostration subdues demonic impulses [bai sha mo 拜杀魔].”

Ṣawm: “Abstinence quenches the fires of desire [zhai xi huo 斋息火].”

Zakāt: “Charity alleviates existential afflictions [ke xi e 课息厄].”

Ḥajj: “Journeying severs worldly bonds [chao jue qianlian 超绝牵连]”.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4572)43

To substantiate this framework, Liu invokes the Yijing (Book of Changes), citing:

(The sage), in accordance with (the Yi), looking up, contemplates the brilliant phenomena of the heavens, and, looking down, examines the definite arrangements of the earth; thus he knows the causes of darkness (or, what is obscure) and light (or, what is bright). He traces things to their beginning, and follows them to their end; thus he knows what can be said about death and life.

(in Legge [1899] 1963, p. 353)44

He then synthesizes this cosmological vision with Islamic ritual praxis, maintaining:

The Five Pillars’ efficacy is vast. They penetrate the subtle junctures between Heaven and humanity (tianren zhi ji 天人之几), unveil the mysteries of the manifest and hidden (youming zhi gu 幽明之故), illuminate the profundities of innate nature (xingfen zhi wei 性分之微45), and clarify the meaning of life and death (shengsi zhi yi 生死之义). In their sublimity, they resonate with the ceaseless flow of cosmic order without dissipating into abstraction; in their mundanity, they enhance practical competence within daily affairs. Encompassing the boundless and permeating the infinitesimal, they harmonize with temporal cycles, enduring through antiquity and modernity without disorder.

(Z. Liu [1768] 2016, p. 4572)46

The Five Pillars, therefore, serve as both metaphysical epistemology and pragmatic methodology. Their performance is dialectical: spiritually, they enable apprehension of divine omnipotence through cosmic-cognitive alignment; pragmatically, they cultivate discernment in navigating secular complexities. By integrating the Yijing’s hermeneutics of “observing patterns to comprehend subtlety” with Islamic asceticism, Liu constructs a Confucian-Islamic paradigm wherein ritual acts simultaneously purify the heart-mind and perfect worldly engagement.

Liu Zhi’s final core principle, fulling primordial nature (尽性 jinxing) posits the capacity of the Five Pillars to progressively purify the soul, exhaustively illumine cosmic principles, completely eradicate selfishness, and ultimately achieve union with the Divine—a state he terms keji wanzhen (克己完真, “self-annihilation to perfect authenticity”). This represents the apex of Sufi spiritual ascent (sulūk), wherein the practitioner merges with the Divine Essence through fanben guichu (返本归初, “returning to the primordial origin”), attaining a state of ontological fusion (hunhua 混化). Liu illustrates this transcendent stage through the paradigm of the zhiren (至人, perfected practitioner)—the “one of sublime inner attainment” (neigong gaopin zhe 内功高品者)—whose engagement with the Five Pillars transcends formal observance:

The perfected enact the Five Pillars ceaselessly:

Reciting without conscious intention,

Prostrating without physical motion,

Fasting beyond abstention from food and desire,

Giving alms without relinquishing possessions,

Journeying without corporeal movement.

These Five constitute the Pillars’ supreme form—

How could ordinary minds comprehend such devotion?

(ibid., p. 4573)47

Here, ritual praxis dissolves into interiorized spirituality, unbound by bodily, verbal, or mental constraints. Liu reinterprets this Sufi ideal of fanāʾ (annihilation in God) through the Confucian framework of tianren heyi (天人合一, Heaven-human unity), asserting:

Knowing encompasses all phenomena;

Divine responsiveness transcends spatial bounds;

The subtle junctures of cosmos reside within.

Thus, employing Heaven through humanity,

And humanity through Heaven,

The celestial and human attain consummate marvel—

Substance and function merge into wholeness,

Revealing the primordial reality of the Heavenly Dao.

(ibid., p. 4575)48 窗体顶端

6. Conclusions

During late imperial China, Liu Zhi’s Wugong Shiyi (Interpretation of the Five Pillars) creatively employed Confucian discourse to interpret Islamic ritual theory and practice through a Sinicized lens. This work holds profound significance for the inculturation of religion in China in at least three ways. First, Liu pioneered a new domain of Confucian-Islamic synthesis (yiruhuitong 伊儒会通) that provides Chinese Muslims with a comprehensive, culturally resonant understanding of the Five Pillars, thereby showing how liturgical inculturation is a deep expression of the localization of Islam in China. Second, Liu’s application of Confucian xinxing (heart-mind and nature) theory to Islamic praxis suggests that the Sinicized hermeneutics of religious rituals may serve as a vital pathway for contemporary faith traditions engaging with Chinese culture. Third, Liu’s synthesis exemplifies how cross-civilizational dialogue can generate innovative spiritual results that advance the inculturation of religion in China, offering transformative models for intercultural exchange and setting new precedents for harmonizing diverse traditions. Liu’s Wugong Shiyi transcends mere doctrinal adaptation, embodying a creative reconfiguration of Islamic spirituality through a Chinese philosophical lexicon. His achievements highlight the necessity of grounding religious practices in local cultural logic as well as the value of synthesizing civilizational wisdom through localized praxis.