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Article

Influence of Ecological Factors and Internal Resources on Adolescent Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Study in Colombia

by
Mario Euseche
1,2,* and
Antonio Muñoz-García
3
1
Executive Department, La Vega Educational Center, Puerto Concordia 503041, Colombia
2
REDDI Network of Researcher Teachers, Bogotá 110231, Colombia
3
Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Religions 2025, 16(11), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111352 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 4 September 2025 / Revised: 20 October 2025 / Accepted: 21 October 2025 / Published: 27 October 2025
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Abstract

This study analyzes suicidal ideation in Colombian adolescents from an ecological perspective, considering family, school, religious, and psychological factors. A total of 1372 high school students participated. The findings demonstrate that family functionality was directly and positively associated with lower levels of negative suicidal ideation, positioning it as the most influential factor in mitigating risk. This effect was both independent and substantially stronger than that of personal religiosity or school satisfaction, which exerted their influence primarily through indirect pathways mediated by psychological well-being and spirituality. Structural equation modeling confirmed the direct effect of family functionality on suicidal ideation, whereas school satisfaction and religiosity operated exclusively through mediating variables. The study highlights the importance of culturally sensitive preventive interventions that strengthen the family and school environment and promote the spiritual and emotional development of adolescents.

1. Introduction

Suicide has become the fourth leading cause of death among adolescents aged 15 to 19 worldwide (World Health Organization 2021). Its prevalence is higher among males (Glenn et al. 2020) and tends to manifest more frequently during adolescence (Van Vuuren et al. 2021). Although it represents a serious global public health issue, theoretical models developed to understand it criticize individualistic and biomedical approaches (e.g., Hernández et al. 2024; Mendes and Werlang 2014; Sembler 2023) and agree on the importance of sociocultural aspects (Clay 2018; Hausmann-Stabile et al. 2021). These models advocate for a culturally informed understanding (Clay 2018) that recognizes the role of identity, collective history, and social norms (Clay 2018; Yip et al. 2015) and considers the synergistic interaction of multiple factors, including not only sociocultural (Díaz-Oliván et al. 2021; Sue and Sue 2012) but also spiritual and community-based ones (Sue and Sue 2012).
The suicidal process generally begins with suicidal ideation (SI) (Villalobos-Galvis 2010). SI encompasses thoughts, desires, considerations, or plans regarding one’s own death, which may vary in frequency, duration, and intensity, ranging from fleeting contemplation to detailed planning of a suicidal act (Krug et al. 2002; Rangel and Jurado 2022). SI is considered an indicator of vulnerability (Bahamón and Alarcón-Vásquez 2018) and results from the interaction of various risk factors, including physical health issues, behavioral problems, family dynamics, sexual concerns, academic difficulties, and interpersonal relationships (Ackerman and Horowitz 2022; Bahamón and Alarcón-Vásquez 2018; Cañón et al. 2018; Evans and Hawton 2018; Londoño-Muriel and Cañón-Buitrago 2020; Richardson et al. 2024).
The present study aims to explore the complex interaction of variables within a specific cultural and age context: adolescence in Colombia. In this population group, a suicide rate of 9.79 per 100,000 inhabitants has been reported (Pontificia Universidad Javeriana 2023), highlighting the urgency of understanding the factors influencing this phenomenon from a contextualized perspective that integrates cultural, spiritual, and community dimensions into prevention and intervention models (Sue and Sue 2012). Additionally, an increase in suicide rates has been observed across the general population (Instituto Nacional de Salud 2024).
Adolescent suicide in Colombia has been linked to a multifactorial reality deeply rooted in individual, family, and social factors. Various studies have identified that adolescents in vulnerable conditions, with disabilities, or living in rural areas (Rangel and Jurado 2022), who have experienced domestic violence and/or physical, emotional, or sexual abuse (Restrepo et al. 2025), who live without both parents or with multiple siblings (Euseche and Muñoz-García 2024), or who use psychoactive substances (Restrepo et al. 2025), and those with mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, impulsivity traits) (López-Vega et al. 2020; Restrepo et al. 2025), loss of values (González 2023), lack of life purpose or existential meaning (Ballesteros et al. 2010; González 2023), low religious beliefs and attitudes (Euseche and Muñoz-García 2024), diminished importance of spirituality (Euseche and Muñoz-García 2022), or religious conflict and identity crisis (Ballesteros et al. 2010), are at greater risk of suicidal ideation.
Sociocultural aspects such as forced displacement due to armed conflict in Colombia (Sánchez et al. 2019), discrimination, isolation, and cultural pressure (González-Sancho and Picado Cortés 2020; Hausmann-Stabile et al. 2021; Pappas 2023), lack of ethical or spiritual role models and value crises (González 2023), weak family ties and support (González et al. 2022), low family functionality (Aguirre-Flórez et al. 2015), absence of effective public policies and youth-oriented prevention programs (PAHO 2021), limited psychological support (López-Vega et al. 2020), and the scarcity of mental and emotional health programs in schools (González et al. 2022; López-Vega et al. 2020), academic pressure (López-Vega et al. 2020), and the presence of issues such as bullying, poor academic performance, conflictive personal relationships, and difficulty in social integration (Aguirre-Flórez et al. 2015; Ballesteros et al. 2010; Londoño-Muriel and Cañón-Buitrago 2020), have also been associated with suicidal behaviors among Colombian adolescents.
Understanding the complexity of factors associated with suicidal ideation (SI) is essential for its prevention and treatment, and consequently, for reducing suicide incidence. Comprehending these factors through integrative models—such as ecological and sociocultural frameworks—can contribute to a deeper understanding of the elements that shape SI and their interrelations. This study investigates, from this perspective, the dynamics present in Colombian society regarding the role of family functionality, school, and religion in adolescent SI. The influence of these aspects may be modulated, as previous studies have indicated (e.g., Castañeda 2025; Simkin 2016; Gallardo-Vergara et al. 2022), by factors such as psychological well-being (PW) and spirituality, both of which are linked to a fulfilling life and emotional balance (Yıldırım-Kurtuluş et al. 2022).

1.1. Family Functionality and Suicidal Ideation

The family context exerts a diverse and significant influence on adolescent development (Hayre et al. 2023), particularly affecting psychological well-being (PW) (Campo-Arias and Caballero-Domínguez 2020), behavior, and personality (Divecha and Brackett 2020). Adequate family functionality—understood as the family’s ability to fulfill basic functions such as emotional support, communication, problem-solving, and cohesion among its members—has a positive impact on well-being and is associated with a lower risk of suicide in adolescents (Núñez-Ariza et al. 2020). Conversely, lack of communication and family disorganization (Bahamón and Alarcón-Vásquez 2018), as well as family conflicts, especially those related to autonomy (Garza et al. 2019), have been linked to SI, highlighting the relationship between SI and low family functionality (e.g., Chang et al. 2020; Lipschitz et al. 2012; Waraan et al. 2023).

1.2. School Context and Suicidal Ideation: The Protective Role of School Satisfaction

The school, as a developmental context, significantly influences adolescents’ socioemotional and cognitive growth (Franco et al. 2022), affecting their well-being (Benavente et al. 2018) by acting as a social refuge that fosters a sense of belonging—an essential element during this stage of life (Baumeister and Leary 1995).
Peer relationships and social support impact self-esteem and well-being, reducing risk factors (Forrester et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2016; Oriol et al. 2017) and contributing to the prevention of suicidal ideation and behavior (Gallagher and Miller 2018). A positive evaluation of the overall school experience, known as school satisfaction (Huebner 1994), affects psychological well-being (Wu and Becker 2023), and its absence has been associated with emotional problems (García-Moya et al. 2019), suicidal ideation (Yao et al. 2014), and suicide (Locke and Newcomb 2004).

1.3. Religiosity and Suicidal Ideation

Religiosity encompasses beliefs, rituals, and practices that connect individuals with the sacred and with their community (González-Rivera 2017). It is related to religious orientation and participation in specific practices (Plöderl et al. 2020). Spirituality, when understood as distinct from religion, is associated with the search for meaning in life, and connection with oneself, others, nature, or the sacred (González-Rivera 2017; Plöderl et al. 2020).
Participation in religious/spiritual activities has been linked to a lower propensity for suicide, especially among women (Gearing and Alonzo 2018), although some studies suggest that religious practice alone may be insufficient as a protective factor (e.g., Euseche and Muñoz-García 2024). Religion protects against suicidal ideation by strengthening social integration and emotional resources (Eskin et al. 2019), enhancing family satisfaction and interpersonal relationships, and fostering cohesion and support (Rojas and Watkins-Fassler 2022). It also contributes to psychological well-being by helping individuals cope with existential anxiety and providing a sense of meaning and purpose (Craig et al. 2022; Eskin et al. 2019).
Moreover, religiosity influences self-esteem and emotional regulation, affecting both mood and impulsivity (King et al. 2020). The importance of spirituality for adolescents, traditional religious affiliation, internal spiritual experience, and the meaning attributed to faith are all protective factors against suicidal thoughts during adolescence (Euseche and Muñoz-García 2022, 2024).

1.4. This Study

The theoretical and empirical background presented above highlights the need to approach adolescent suicidal ideation (SI) from an ecological perspective that integrates both personal and contextual factors. In particular, the role of family functionality, school satisfaction, and personal religiosity has been emphasized as elements that, in interaction with psychological well-being (PW) and spirituality, may significantly influence the emergence or prevention of suicidal thoughts. This approach is especially relevant in the Colombian context, where sociocultural, economic, and community conditions create a highly vulnerable environment for the youth population. Studying religion and spirituality as separate constructs will provide conceptual clarity and allow for the identification of distinct mechanisms of influence on adolescent well-being and suicidal ideation. Conducting this analysis in the Colombian context adds scientific value by situating these variables within a culture marked by strong religious traditions and emerging secularization, enabling culturally sensitive interpretations and interventions.
Thus, the present study is justified by the need to understand how these dimensions are articulated in the adolescent’s subjective experience, and how their influence may be modulated by internal resources such as psychological well-being and spirituality, with the aim of providing empirical evidence to guide culturally sensitive and contextually grounded prevention strategies.
Spirituality can serve as a coping mechanism in situations of conflict or stress (Hinojosa et al. 2018) and has been shown to have a positive impact on mental health (Tae and Chae 2021), protecting against suicidal ideation and behavior through social support and a sense of belonging (Joiner 2005; Tae and Chae 2021). Spirituality, understood as a subjective experience of the sacred (Vaughan 1991), is situated within the context of religious beliefs and practices (González-Rivera 2017). It may influence the relationship between religious measures (e.g., belief or practice) and other factors, and also affect the impact of school and family on SI, for example, through its contribution to meaning-making (Plöderl et al. 2020).
Psychological well-being, characterized by personal achievements, self-acceptance, and life purpose, is influenced by the quality of family interactions and school relationships (Forrester et al. 2022). In the school context, emotional support and classroom engagement have been associated with higher PW (Smith et al. 2020), which is also linked to expressions of religion and spirituality (Szcześniak and Timoszyk-Tomczak 2020), family experiences (Chiao et al. 2019), and school satisfaction (Muñoz-García and Villena-Martínez 2021). Promoting well-being has been shown to reduce risks, strengthen resources, and improve PW, positively impacting suicide prevention (Bahamón et al. 2019).
Gender differences are also a variable to consider, as suicide rates are higher among males (Glenn et al. 2020), while lower levels of well-being are observed in females (Booker et al. 2018). Females also tend to be more religious and spiritual, especially in Christian contexts (Jacob et al. 2019; Toscanelli et al. 2022).
Given this network of relationships, which reflects the contribution of both personal and ecological resources to adolescent well-being (Oberle et al. 2011), and the need for complex approaches to understand SI (Bahamón et al. 2018; Clay 2018; Hausmann-Stabile et al. 2021), the present study explores how personal factors (i.e., PW, spirituality) interact with ecological resources (i.e., family functionality, school satisfaction, personal religiosity), influencing SI (Gallagher and Miller 2018).
An empirical study is proposed, descriptive, comparative, observational, cross-sectional, analytical, and non-experimental, involving Colombian adolescent participants, to test the following hypotheses:
H1: 
Ecological factors—family functionality, personal religiosity, and school satisfaction—will have a significant and positive effect on psychological well-being and spirituality.
H2: 
Psychological well-being and spirituality will significantly influence suicidal ideation, acting as protective factors against negative suicidal ideation and enhancers of positive suicidal ideation.
H3: 
Psychological well-being and spirituality will mediate the relationship between ecological factors (family functionality, school satisfaction, and personal religiosity) and suicidal ideation.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

The sample consisted of 1372 secondary school students from public schools in Colombia. Ten public educational institutions from the cities of Arauca and Villavicencio participated in the study. Participants were enrolled in grades 6 through 11 and ranged in age from 12 to 18 years (M = 14.57; SD = 1.75). Of the total, 59.2% were female and 40.8% male.
A non-probabilistic convenience sampling method was used, as only those adolescents whose educational institutions agreed to collaborate with the study after prior consultation were included.
The inclusion criteria for participants in these schools were (1) being between 12 and 18 years of age; (2) being an adolescent student enrolled in a public school; (3) providing voluntary consent and signing the informed consent form; and (4) having parental or legal guardian authorization to participate.

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. Suicidal Ideation

To measure this variable, the Colombian adaptation by Villalobos-Galvis (2010) of the Positive and Negative Suicide Ideation Inventory (PANSI) developed by Osman et al. (1998) was used. This questionnaire assesses the presence of suicidal thoughts in adolescents and adults. It consists of 14 items: eight related to negative suicidal ideation (NSI), which cover risk factors (e.g., “Have you considered suicide because of a personal problem that seemed unsolvable?”), and six that reflect positive suicidal ideation (PSI), which include protective thoughts against suicide (e.g., “Do you feel that you have control over most situations in your life?”). A high score on NSI indicates a greater presence of suicidal thoughts, while a high score on PSI suggests protective thinking against suicide. Responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = never, 4 = always). The reliability of the scales in this sample was 0.75 for PSI and 0.92 for NSI.

2.2.2. Family Functionality

The Family APGAR Scale, created by Smilkstein (1978) and adapted for Colombian students by Forero et al. (2006), was used. This instrument measures family functionality through five questions that assess: (1) Adaptation—satisfaction with support during times of crisis; (2) Participation—involvement in decision-making and mutual communication; (3) Growth—satisfaction with personal development; (4) Affection—sharing of emotional experiences among family members; (5) Resources—satisfaction with time, space, and financial resources available in the family context.
It uses a 5-point Likert scale (0 = never, 4 = always), where higher scores indicate better family functioning. The reliability of the scale in this study’s sample was 0.85.

2.2.3. Psychological Well-Being

The Psychological Well-Being Scale for Adolescents (PW-A), developed by González-Fuentes and Andrade (2016) and based on Ryff’s (1989) model of psychological well-being, consists of 29 statements assessing seven dimensions of PW: (1) Personal Growth—continuous development and openness to new experiences; (2) Positive Relationships with Others—ability to form deep, empathetic, and satisfying bonds; (3) Life Purpose—having clear goals and a sense of direction that gives meaning to life; (4) Self-Acceptance—maintaining a positive attitude toward oneself, including acceptance of both strengths and weaknesses; (5) Future Plans—ability to anticipate and plan with hope and motivation; (6) Self-Rejection—excessive self-criticism or difficulty in self-acceptance; (7) Personal Control—perception of influence over one’s environment and decisions.
For this study, a global PW score was used, calculated by summing the scores of the seven dimensions. A higher score indicates better positive functioning, characteristic of a person who knows and accepts themselves, maintains healthy relationships, makes autonomous decisions, has control over their environment, pursues meaningful goals, and experiences continuous personal growth throughout life (Ryff 1989). Responses are given on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree), where higher scores indicate greater psychological well-being. The reliability of the instrument, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.90 in this sample.

2.2.4. School Satisfaction

School satisfaction was assessed using the questionnaire developed by Carmona-Halty and Villegas-Robertson (2019). It consists of a single factor composed of four items that explore students’ satisfaction with their teachers, classmates, educational institution, and academic performance. Responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied). A higher total score reflects greater school satisfaction. The reliability of the instrument, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.77 in this sample.

2.2.5. Religiosity

The Personal Religiosity Scale designed by González-Rivera (2017) was used. It consists of two subscales: (1) Religious Beliefs/Attitudes (e.g., “The religion I practice gives meaning to my life”), and (2) Religious Practices (e.g., “Attending church or temple is very important to me”). Each subscale contains six items and uses a 4-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). Higher scores on each subscale reflect greater religiosity. Internal consistency in this sample was 0.91 and 0.88 for the Religious Beliefs/Attitudes and Religious Practices subscales, respectively. For the purposes of this study, an aggregate measure was used, calculated by summing the scores from both subscales. The overall reliability of the instrument in this sample was 0.94.

2.2.6. Spirituality

The Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality subscale from the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory developed by MacDonald (2000), specifically the Spanish version adapted by Muñoz-García (2013), was used. This subscale includes six items that assess the importance a person places on spirituality, as well as their beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes toward it (e.g., “My spirituality has benefited my life”). Responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). A high score reflects a strong cognitive orientation or personal importance attributed to spirituality. The reliability of the instrument, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.90 in this sample.

2.3. Data Analysis

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to test the hypothesized relationships and mediating effects. Prior to model estimation, assumptions of normality and multicollinearity were assessed. Univariate and multivariate normality were verified using skewness and kurtosis indices, ensuring values fell within recommended thresholds (|skewness| < 2; |kurtosis| < 7) as suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Multicollinearity was evaluated through variance inflation factors (VIF), with all predictors presenting VIF values below 5, indicating no problematic collinearity (Kline 2016).
SEM analyses were performed using maximum likelihood estimation. Model fit was evaluated through multiple indices, including χ2, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR, following conventional cutoff criteria (Hu and Bentler 1999). Direct, indirect, and total effects were estimated, and mediation was tested using bootstrapping procedures with bias-corrected confidence intervals (Preacher and Hayes 2008).

3. Results

3.1. Structural Model of Relationships Between Ecological Factors, Psychological Well-Being, Spirituality, and Adolescent Suicidal Ideation

The fit statistics of the overall model (see Figure 1), which represented the proposed interrelationships between psychological and social variables, indicated a good model fit, falling within recommended ranges (χ2(3) = 9.061, p < 0.05; CMIN/df = 3.02; GFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.978; CFI = 0.998; SRMR = 0.014; RMSEA = 0.040).
The model showed a significant direct relationship between family functionality and psychological well-being, spirituality, and positive and negative suicidal ideation. These results suggest that greater family functionality is associated with higher psychological well-being and differentiated levels of suicidal ideation.
Personal religiosity had a direct influence on psychological well-being and spirituality, and an indirect effect on both positive and negative suicidal ideation through these two variables, indicating a mediating role of spirituality and psychological well-being in this relationship.
School satisfaction was directly related to psychological well-being, spirituality, and positive suicidal ideation. Although its direct relationship with negative suicidal ideation was not significant, it did show a significant negative indirect effect on negative suicidal ideation, mediated by spirituality and psychological well-being.
Spirituality showed direct relationships with psychological well-being and both forms of suicidal ideation. Additionally, it exerted an indirect effect on negative suicidal ideation through psychological well-being and positive suicidal ideation.
Psychological well-being was directly associated with both positive and negative suicidal ideation, while positive suicidal ideation was also directly and negatively related to negative suicidal ideation.

3.2. Influences on Psychological Well-Being

The factors of family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction, and spirituality explained 34% of the variance in psychological well-being. The evaluation of the impact of the exogenous variables—family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction—and the mediating variable spirituality on psychological well-being (H1) showed (see Table 1 and Table 2) a positive and significant impact of family functionality on psychological well-being (b = 0.293, t = 11.43, p < 0.001). Spirituality positively and significantly mediated this effect (b = 0.051, t = 0.018, p < 0.001).
The contribution of religiosity was also positive and significant (b = 0.113, t = 4.36, p < 0.001), as was its mediation through spirituality (b = 0.092, t = 0.028, p < 0.005). Similarly, school satisfaction had a positive and significant impact on psychological well-being (b = 0.235, t = 9.11, p < 0.001), with a positive mediation effect from spirituality (b = 0.032, t = 0.016, p < 0.01). Spirituality itself had a direct and significant effect on psychological well-being (b = 0.120, t = 3.95, p < 0.001).

3.3. Predictive Factors of Spirituality

Religiosity (b = 0.543, t = 22.65, p < 0.001), school satisfaction (b = 0.073, t = 3.05, p < 0.05), and family functionality (b = 0.159, t = 6.71, p < 0.001) predicted 42% of the variance in spirituality, showing a positive and significant influence on this variable, with religiosity being the strongest predictor (see Table 3). This means that spirituality, understood as a personal orientation toward meaning, transcendence, and connection with the sacred, is shaped primarily by internalized religious beliefs and practices, complemented by supportive family dynamics and positive school experiences.

3.4. Factors Influencing Positive Suicidal Ideation (PSI)

Family functionality, school satisfaction, psychological well-being (PW), and spirituality explained 40% of the variance in PSI, with psychological well-being being the most influential variable in the model. In this context, family functionality showed a positive and significant direct effect on PSI (b = 0.286, t = 11.09, p < 0.001), as well as a positive and significant indirect effect (b = 0.135, t = 0.014, p < 0.001), mediated by spirituality and PW (see Table 4).
Similarly, school satisfaction had both a positive direct effect (b = 0.057, t = 2.25, p < 0.05) and a significant indirect effect (b = 0.135, t = 0.020, p < 0.001), also mediated by the same variables.
Regarding religiosity, its direct effect on PSI was negative and not significant (b = −0.051, t = −1.74, p = 0.081). However, a positive and significant indirect effect was observed (b = 0.075, t = 2.52, p < 0.001), indicating full mediation through spirituality and PW.
Spirituality showed a direct and significant relationship with PSI (b = 0.130, t = 4.45, p < 0.001), as well as a positive and significant indirect effect (b = 0.038, t = 2.52, p < 0.005), mediated by PW.
Finally, psychological well-being had a strong, positive, and highly significant direct influence on PSI (b = 0.367, t = 13.48, p < 0.001), establishing itself as the strongest predictor of this variable.

3.5. Factors Influencing Negative Suicidal Ideation (NSI)

Family functionality, psychological well-being, and PSI explained 24% of the variance in NSI, with negative and significant direct effects (see Table 5). Among these variables, PSI showed the greatest influence, confirming its protective role against NSI.
In terms of direct effects, family functionality had a negative and significant impact on NSI (b = −0.169, t = −5.54, p < 0.001), as did psychological well-being (b = −0.186, t = −5.67, p < 0.001). PSI was also negatively associated with NSI, with a significant direct effect (b = −0.212, t = −6.64, p < 0.001), reinforcing its role as a protective factor.
Regarding indirect effects, family functionality exerted a negative and significant effect on NSI through spirituality, PW, and PSI (b = −0.146, t = 0.022, p < 0.001). Similarly, PW showed a negative and significant indirect effect mediated by PSI (b = −0.029, t = 0.006, p < 0.001), suggesting partial mediation, as part of its influence is channeled through PSI.
Spirituality did not show a significant direct effect on NSI (b = 0.010, t = 0.294, p = 0.769) but did show a negative and significant indirect effect (b = −0.051, t = 0.012, p < 0.001), mediated by PW and PSI.
School satisfaction also did not show a significant direct effect (b = 0.004, t = 0.139, p = 0.890), although its indirect effect was negative and significant (b = −0.107, t = 0.021, p < 0.001), indicating full mediation through the variables.
Finally, religiosity did not have a significant direct effect on NSI (b = −0.050, t = −1.51, p = 0.130), but did show a negative and significant indirect effect (b = −0.027, t = 0.012, p < 0.05), mediated by spirituality, PW, and PSI. This pattern suggests that the influence of religiosity on NSI is fully explained by its effect on the mediating factors.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to explore the understanding of factors associated with the presence of suicidal thoughts among Colombian adolescents. To this end, the influence of family functionality, school satisfaction, and religiosity on suicidal ideation (both positive and negative) was examined. These factors have been highlighted in previous theoretical and empirical studies for their relevance, either through direct influence or indirect effects mediated by psychological well-being and spirituality. Based on the findings of these studies, three hypotheses were proposed and are discussed below.
The first hypothesis stated that family functionality, personal religiosity, and school satisfaction would have a significant and positive effect on psychological well-being and spirituality (H1). The results confirmed this hypothesis by revealing significant associations between these sociocultural factors and both psychological well-being and spirituality.
Consistent with previous studies that have emphasized the crucial role of family interactions in the development of psychological well-being in youth (Higuita-Gutiérrez and Cardona-Arias 2016), the results showed that psychological well-being is enhanced when adolescents feel supported and understood by their family environment. This includes feeling confident that they can rely on their family during difficult times, being heard and valued in household decisions, and experiencing their family as a space that fosters personal growth. Additionally, adolescents perceive strong emotional bonds and a shared life based on mutual support, which enables them to face conflicts collaboratively and effectively with other family members.
These aspects were also associated with a greater importance placed on spirituality by adolescents, possibly because healthy family dynamics—characterized by emotional support, open communication, and strong affective bonds—create a favorable environment for adolescents to develop and explore transcendent aspects of their identity (Abo-Zena and Akef 2024; Mahoney and Cano 2014; Walsh 2013).
Spirituality was also linked to religion, which acts as a framework for the search for meaning and purpose in adolescents’ lives (Sharma and Singh 2019). Likewise, Hardy et al. (2019) noted that internalized religiosity in adolescents strengthens spirituality as an identity dimension and promoter of well-being. Pargament et al. (2013) also emphasized that religiosity, when meaningful and supported by the social environment, can foster deep spirituality rooted in purpose, connection, and transcendence, thereby enhancing its influence on well-being.
School satisfaction was also positively associated with adolescents’ psychological well-being and spirituality, highlighting the important role that educational experiences play in promoting both. Previous studies have attributed this effect to the fact that school provides a sense of belonging and emotional support (Liu et al. 2016), encourages reflection and exploration of values and meaning, and stimulates the search for purpose in life—a key component of spirituality (González-Rivera 2017). Moreover, the school environment can serve as a space for spiritual development by fostering resilience, personal growth, and connection to something greater than oneself, especially when educational practices integrate emotional and ethical development (Kim and Esquivel 2011).
The second hypothesis proposed that psychological well-being and spirituality influence suicidal ideation, acting as protective factors against negative suicidal ideation and as enhancers of positive suicidal ideation (H2). The study’s results support the hypothesis that psychological well-being and spirituality significantly influence suicidal ideation. The protective role of psychological well-being against suicidal ideation observed in this study has been highlighted in previous research, which has linked a reduction in suicidal thoughts to the protective role of spirituality as a buffer against psychological distress (Gaskin-Wasson et al. 2018; Oman and Lukoff 2018), as well as its ability to increase a sense of belonging and social support, provide meaning and life purpose, and promote healthy practices (Oman and Lukoff 2018).
On the other hand, its relationship with positive suicidal ideation may be connected to the presence of a positive, integrated, and non-conflictual spiritual experience (Currier et al. 2020). Furthermore, the increase in positive cognitions resulting from the effects of psychological well-being and spirituality—and their role in interrupting the cycle of hopelessness that leads to suicide—has been proposed as an explanation for the observed relationship between these variables and higher levels of positive suicidal ideation (Wingate et al. 2006).
Moreover, it was identified that spirituality and psychological well-being also exert indirect effects through their interaction with other variables in the model. Although spirituality did not show a significant direct effect on negative suicidal ideation (NSI) in adolescents, it did exhibit a significant negative indirect effect, mediated by psychological well-being (PW) and protective thoughts (ISP). This suggests that spirituality may act as an indirect protective factor by strengthening internal resources such as a sense of purpose, emotional resilience, and affective regulation, which contribute to reducing NSI. Girard (2007) argues that during adolescence, spiritual and religious aspects are related to values, attitudes, and life purposes, and may indirectly influence suicide prevention by promoting hope, self-esteem, and a sense of meaning in life. Furthermore, recent research has shown that spirituality in adolescents is associated with a reduction in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety, and with greater emotional well-being, reinforcing its mediating role in suicide risk prevention (Gómez-Tabares et al. 2020; Hardy et al. 2019).
ISP, in turn, was confirmed as a key protective factor against NSI, reinforcing the idea that positive thoughts about life and the future can counteract the emergence of negative suicidal ideation (see Bahamón 2017; García et al. 2024; González 2023; Val and Míguez 2021).
Finally, the third hypothesis pointed to the mediating effect of PW and spirituality between ecological factors (i.e., family functionality, school satisfaction, and personal religiosity) and suicidal ideation (H3).
The results partially supported this hypothesis. It was observed that both psychological well-being (PW) and spirituality significantly mediated the relationship between protective and risk factors and suicidal ideation (SI) in Colombian adolescents. In line with previous research (Hayre et al. 2023), family functionality was found to have not only a direct effect on SI but also an indirect effect through PW and spirituality. This suggests that a functional family environment not only directly reduces the likelihood of SI but also fosters the development of internal resources such as emotional well-being and spiritual dimension.
However, the fact that family functionality was the only factor with a direct effect on SI highlights its central role in adolescent development, surpassing the influence of school or personal religiosity. This conclusion aligns with the findings of Hayre et al. (2023), who emphasize the importance of the quality of family relationships in adolescent mental health. Likewise, Higuita-Gutiérrez and Cardona-Arias (2016) underscore the need to include family functionality in public suicide prevention policies. Moreover, from the perspective of the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner 2005), it is likely that adolescents who experience positive relationships develop more hopeful thoughts, greater resilience, and a sense of belonging, which contributes to reducing SI (Forrester et al. 2022; Gallagher and Miller 2018; Simcock et al. 2021).
School satisfaction, in turn, showed an indirect relationship with SI, mediated by PW and spirituality. These findings support the idea that a positive school environment can foster adolescents’ emotional and spiritual well-being, thereby reducing the risk of SI (Kirby et al. 2022). Although no direct effect of school satisfaction on SI was identified, the results suggest that its influence is exerted indirectly, acting as a protective factor through the mediation of PW and spirituality (Kirby et al. 2022; Peker and Cengiz 2023).
On the other hand, regarding gender differences, these were not significant in terms of spirituality, although previous studies (e.g., Jacob et al. 2019; Toscanelli et al. 2022) have shown higher levels of religiosity/spirituality in females. The secularization of the sample participants and their age may explain these results. Regarding psychological well-being (PW), it was significantly higher in males, consistent with previous research that has observed lower levels of PW in females (Booker et al. 2018; Mínguez 2020). These differences may be related to sociocultural and gender factors, as well as cultural pressures that influence how males and females perceive and express their PW. Additionally, biological and cultural factors may play a distinct role in females (González-Carrasco et al. 2017).
As for protective factors against suicidal ideation (SI), no significant gender differences were observed, indicating that both sexes can benefit from similar protective factors, such as a sense of control over life, hope for the future, and confidence in their abilities. Males showed fewer risk factors for SI compared to females, which aligns with previous studies that have reported a higher incidence of SI in females (Ahmad et al. 2023), possibly related to the higher prevalence of depression in this group (Breton et al. 2015; Seely et al. 2023). These results highlight the importance of considering gender differences in research and prevention of SI in adolescents.
This study presents several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the cross-sectional design prevents the establishment of causal relationships between the variables analyzed, limiting the conclusions to associations observed at a specific point in time. Second, the use of self-report instruments may have introduced social desirability bias or perception errors by participants, especially regarding sensitive topics such as suicidal ideation. Additionally, the sample was selected by convenience and limited to students from Colombian public schools, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to other educational contexts or adolescent populations with different characteristics. Finally, although relevant variables were included from an ecological perspective, other contextual or individual factors that could influence suicidal ideation—such as social media use, experiences of violence or discrimination, or access to mental health services—were not considered in this model.
Despite these limitations, this study offers several significant contributions to the field of adolescent mental health and suicide prevention, particularly in Latin American contexts such as Colombia. First, it stands out for its ecological and integrative approach, analyzing both personal factors (psychological well-being and spirituality) and contextual factors (family functionality, school satisfaction, and personal religiosity), allowing for a more holistic understanding of suicidal ideation in adolescents. This perspective aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (Bronfenbrenner 1987, 1992), which emphasizes the interaction between multiple levels of influence in human development.
Second, the study provides empirical evidence on the mediating role of psychological well-being and spirituality in the relationship between ecological factors and suicidal ideation, representing an advance in understanding protective mechanisms against adolescent suicide. This mediation, supported by robust statistical models (Preacher and Hayes 2008), helps identify indirect pathways of influence that may be key for designing preventive interventions.
Third, the study highlights the importance of the school environment as a protective resource, showing that school satisfaction is indirectly associated with lower suicidal ideation through psychological well-being and spirituality. This reinforces the need to strengthen school climate and interpersonal relationships in educational settings as prevention strategies (Liu et al. 2016; Oriol et al. 2017).
Likewise, the relevance of family functionality is emphasized, not only as a direct protective factor but also as a promoter of emotional and spiritual well-being, consistent with previous research that underscores the central role of family in adolescent mental health (Hayre et al. 2023; Higuita-Gutiérrez and Cardona-Arias 2016).
Another notable contribution is the consideration of gender differences in the expression of psychological well-being and suicidal ideation, which highlights the need for differentiated prevention and support strategies (Janiri et al. 2020; Wasserman et al. 2021).
Finally, the study responds to a contextual need by addressing suicidal ideation in Colombian adolescents from a culturally sensitive perspective, integrating underexplored variables such as spirituality and personal religiosity. This approach generates knowledge applicable to similar contexts in Latin America, where cultural, family, and community factors play a significant role in adolescent experience.

5. Conclusions

This study confirms that family functionality, school satisfaction, and personal religiosity influence suicidal ideation in adolescents, primarily through psychological well-being and spirituality. The results support an ecological and integrative approach, showing that an environment that fosters positive family relationships, satisfying school experiences, and meaningful spiritual engagement can reduce the risk of negative suicidal ideation and strengthen protective thoughts.
Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of considering gender differences and cultural particularities in the design of preventive interventions, especially in high-vulnerability contexts such as Colombia.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.E. and A.M.-G.; methodology, M.E.; software, M.E.; investigation, M.E.; data curation, M.E. and A.M.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.E. and A.M.-G.; writing—review and editing, M.E. and A.M.-G.; supervision, A.M.-G.; funding acquisition, M.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by a forgivable loan provided by the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation of Colombia (Call No. 860, 2019) for doctoral studies abroad.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Granada. It complied with the ethical provisions established in Resolution 8430 of 1993 by the Colombian Ministry of Health, which classified the research as minimal risk. Additionally, all procedures adhered to the international ethical principles set forth in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Due to ethical and legal restrictions, the dataset generated and analyzed during the current study is not publicly available. Access may be granted upon reasonable request, subject to the signing of a data-sharing agreement and prior approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Granada.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Religions 16 01352 g001
Figure 1. Structural Equation Model for Family Functionality, School Satisfaction, Religiosity, Psychological Well-Being, Spirituality, Positive Suicidal Ideation, and Negative Suicidal Ideation.
Figure 1. Structural Equation Model for Family Functionality, School Satisfaction, Religiosity, Psychological Well-Being, Spirituality, Positive Suicidal Ideation, and Negative Suicidal Ideation.
Religions 16 01352 g001
Table 1. Direct effects of family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction, and spirituality on psychological well-being.
Table 1. Direct effects of family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction, and spirituality on psychological well-being.
btp
Family functionality0.29311.43<0.001
Religiosity0.1134.36<0.001
School satisfaction0.2359.11<0.001
Spirituality0.1203.95<0.001
Table 2. Mediating effect of spirituality on the relationship between family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction, and psychological well-being.
Table 2. Mediating effect of spirituality on the relationship between family functionality, religiosity, school satisfaction, and psychological well-being.
btp
Family functionality0.0510.180<0.001
Religiosity0.0920.028<0.001
School satisfaction0.0320.016<0.001
Table 3. Regression of Spirituality on Family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction.
Table 3. Regression of Spirituality on Family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction.
btp
Family functionality0.1596.71<0.001
Religiosity0.54322.65<0.001
School satisfaction0.0733.05<0.001
Table 4. Direct and indirect effects of family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction on Positive Suicidal Ideation.
Table 4. Direct and indirect effects of family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction on Positive Suicidal Ideation.
DirectIndirect 1
btpbtp
Family functionality0.28611.09<0.0010.1350.14<0.001
Religiosity−0.051−1.740.0810.0752.52<0.001
School satisfaction0.0572.25<0.0010.1350.020<0.001
1 Mediated by spirituality and psychological well-being.
Table 5. Direct and indirect effects of family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction on Negative Suicidal Ideation.
Table 5. Direct and indirect effects of family functionality, religiosity, and school satisfaction on Negative Suicidal Ideation.
DirectIndirect
btpbtp
Family functionality−0.169−5.540<0.001−0.146 10.022<0.001
Psychological well-being−0.186−5.670<0.001−0.029 20.006<0.001
Positive suicidal ideation−0.212−6.640<0.001
Spirituality0.0100.2940.769−0.051 30.012<0.001
School satisfaction0.0040.1390.890−0.1070.021<0.001
Religiosity−0.050−1.5100.130−0.027 10.012<0.050
1 Indirect effect via spirituality, psychological well-being and positive suicidal ideation. 2 Indirect effect via positive suicidal ideation. 3 Indirect effect via psychological well-being and positive suicidal ideation.
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Euseche, M.; Muñoz-García, A. Influence of Ecological Factors and Internal Resources on Adolescent Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Study in Colombia. Religions 2025, 16, 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111352

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Euseche M, Muñoz-García A. Influence of Ecological Factors and Internal Resources on Adolescent Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Study in Colombia. Religions. 2025; 16(11):1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111352

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Euseche, Mario, and Antonio Muñoz-García. 2025. "Influence of Ecological Factors and Internal Resources on Adolescent Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Study in Colombia" Religions 16, no. 11: 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111352

APA Style

Euseche, M., & Muñoz-García, A. (2025). Influence of Ecological Factors and Internal Resources on Adolescent Suicidal Ideation: An Empirical Study in Colombia. Religions, 16(11), 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111352

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