Religious and Pedagogical Education in Theology Faculties in Türkiye in Their 100th Year: A Comparative Analysis with Similar Programs in the World

Abstract

This study compares religious education and pedagogy programs in theology faculties in Türkiye in their 100th year with similar programs in different countries. Although Türkiye historically has a deep-rooted heritage, it has experienced continued modernization for nearly two centuries. Various approaches were adopted in religious education during this process, and education policies were shaped accordingly. This situation shows that Türkiye’s religious education and pedagogical programs have continuously transformed in line with historical and social dynamics and are still open to development. When religious education and pedagogical programs in different countries were examined, it was determined that, although the programs have their purposes, such as acquiring religious knowledge, developing critical thinking, and training teachers, they show great diversity in their forms of application and content. When compared to examples around the world, it is evident that religious teachers in Türkiye start their profession with less pedagogical training than their colleagues both in Türkiye and abroad. In this regard, the first issue to be discussed is the review and updating of the curriculum. Another issue is structuring the course content to meet today’s needs and solve social problems. In addition, it is necessary to ensure that contemporary educational approaches are integrated into all undergraduate courses and that a holistic approach is applied.

1. Introduction1

Religious education is an essential field that contributes to individuals learning about their religion and other religions, developing moral values, and gaining social identity. Religious education and pedagogy programs shaped according to cultural and historical contexts in different world geographies reveal this field’s rich diversity. Türkiye, although having a deep-rooted heritage historically, has a unique structure in terms of religious education because it has been going through a modernization process for nearly two centuries.

This study intends to reveal the development process of religious education and pedagogy programs in theology faculties in Türkiye in their 100th year and to present them in comparison with similar programs in different countries. The study aims to analyze the similarities and differences in the programs’ content, methods, pedagogical approaches, and curricula by comparing the religious education and pedagogy programs in theology faculties in Türkiye with similar programs worldwide, especially in Europe.

The study tries not to show that one system applied worldwide is better than another but rather to analyze the historical development, current status, strengths, challenges, and future potential of the religious education and pedagogy process in theology faculties in Türkiye.

Interaction with different education systems has become inevitable in today’s globalizing world. In this context, comparative religious education studies on a global scale can contribute to the development of an environment of mutual respect and tolerance by providing a better understanding of cultural differences and diversity in education systems.

This study is aimed to constitute an essential resource for updating religious education and pedagogy policies in the country, making programs more effective and providing students with an education equipped with more inclusive and universal values. For education policymakers, religious educators, and academics in Türkiye, this study will provide new perspectives and enable the development of innovative approaches in religious education.

2. Method

This study, designed as a case study using qualitative research methods, presents a new roadmap by considering the development process for religious and pedagogical education in theology faculties in Türkiye and comparing it with similar processes worldwide. Moreover, the findings of the situation on which the study is based have been tabulated in the relevant sections, and the data obtained are presented descriptively. The evaluation of the situation in the focus of the study is made in detail in the conclusion section in light of the findings, and various suggestions are made. The design of the study is presented in Figure 1:

In this study, document analysis was preferred as the data collection technique, and the subject of the study was evaluated using all its components and different dimensions to understand the phenomenon. Thus, the study tries to provide a broad perspective on religious and pedagogical education in theology faculties in Türkiye in their 100th year. The case study design was preferred in this study and the following steps were followed:

• The research question was determined: what process did religious and pedagogical education in theology faculties in Türkiye undergo over a century, and what is its current status compared to its counterparts worldwide?
• The boundaries of the case to be investigated were determined: the selected case is the development process of religious and pedagogical education in theology faculties from the establishment of the first faculty of theology in Türkiye—in 1924—to the present day, and the comparison of the current situation with its counterparts in the USA and Europe.
• The data collection method was determined: A framework was drawn for the study using the keywords “religious education in higher education”, “pedagogical education in higher education”, and “training religious course teachers”. The relevant documents were limited to the context of theology faculties in Türkiye, the USA, and Europe.

The inclusion criteria for the documents examined were faculties/institutes that provide religious education at the higher education level and aim to train religious teachers, pedagogical and content courses related to religious education, and subjects covering Türkiye, the USA, and European countries. The exclusion criteria for the documents examined were institutions outside the higher education level and formal education, studies conducted outside the geographical scope, and studies focusing on religious services or cultural issues instead of religious education.

In this study, the exclusion of some countries narrowed the scope of the research and enabled a focused, in-depth analysis. The reason for selecting some of the European countries in the study is related to methodological consistency and focus requirements. In this way, it was aimed to ensure representativeness and diversity in the study. As such, a purposeful sample selection was made. Germany, France, England, and Norway represent different European religious education models. These countries are sectarian, multicultural, religiously pluralistic, secular, and pedagogically innovative. It was assumed that adding other European countries with similar structures could lead to the analysis losing focus.

4.

The collected data were analyzed: the obtained data were thematically analyzed, the findings were divided into three sections, and a holistic approach was tried in order to present the situation.

5.

The results were interpreted: after the data were analyzed, the research findings were interpreted within the natural context of the situation and the results were reported.

3. Results

3.1. Religious Education and Pedagogy: The Situation in Türkiye

The faculty of theology has a continuous structure in many ways as an institution that bases itself on a tradition equal to Islamic history. It can be said that the first institutionalization step in the context of higher education for religious education and training activities, which were carried out in the Suffa during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, in mosques in later periods, and in madrasahs in the Ottoman Empire, took place with the establishment of Darülfünun in 1900. Higher religious education was provided in the departments named Ulum-i Aliye-i Diniye. Then, Ulum-i Şer’iyye was established within Darülfünun in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1914, within the scope of the reformation efforts of madrasahs, Medresetü’l-Mütehassisin was established and higher religious education was brought back into the madrasah.

When we look at pedagogical education in the Ottoman period, the madrasahs trained teachers until Darulmuallimin, which was opened for primary schools. Fatih Sultan Mehmet was the first to address teacher training as a field separate from general education in the Ottoman Empire (Aydın 1996). However, this system was discontinued and the need for teachers at different levels was attempted to be compensated through madrasahs without a separate teacher training program. In the second half of the nineteenth century, with the opening of Western-style modern schools, the need to train new teachers who could provide education in these institutions was met by teaching vocational courses in the primary and secondary teacher training schools named Darulmuallimin-i Rüşdi, Darulmuallimin-i Sıbyan, Darulmuallimat, and Darulmuallimin-i Aliye. However, the expected goals could not be achieved due to wars, economic difficulties, and the lack of qualified educators (Parladır 1986).

The development of the religious education department and courses in the faculties of theology in Türkiye from the foundation of the Republic to the present day has been shaped within the framework of both the political and social transformations of the country and the reforms made in the education system. Religious education at all levels underwent various changes in different periods during this process and aligned with Türkiye’s modernization process. For this purpose, during the first period of the Republic (1923–1949), which can also be called the “gap years” in terms of religious education (Ev 2011, p. 18), the aim was to essentially eliminate the Ottoman education system and establish a modern education system in Türkiye. In 1924, with the Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law, all educational institutions were connected to the Ministry of National Education. Following this, depending on the policies of the period, the Ministry of National Education decided to close the madrasahs connected to it. It is possible to say that these practices within the law’s scope significantly narrowed religious education’s place in the official education system. In 1924, the Faculty of Theology of Darülfünun was established—the first institution to open that was named a “Faculty of Theology”—but this faculty was closed in 1933 in line with the policies of the period (Ayhan 2004). As a result, religious education and instruction at all levels were excluded from the official education system during this period.

When we look at pedagogical education in the early years of the Republic, the Faculty of Theology of Darülfünun was considered a place where Islamic sciences would be taught with a modern scientific mentality under the roof of the university (Doğan 1999) with the task of training religious teachers and clergy members who would realize the fundamental goals and ideals of the Republic, along with other fields of education (Ev 2011). With the closure of the Faculty of Theology of Darülfünun in 1933, an institution that would research Islamic issues with scientific methods was eliminated and the opportunity to train religious teachers and religious officials in higher education ended.

The years 1946–1982, when Türkiye adopted a multi-party system, were called “efforts to exist” in terms of religious education (Ev 2011, p. 19) and were a period when religious education began to be included in the education system from primary to higher education. In 1949, the Faculty of Theology of Ankara University was established with the idea that religious education was needed again. With the increasing importance of religious education at all levels of education between 1959 and 1979, Higher Islamic Institutes were established, under the Ministry of National Education, in Istanbul, Konya, Kayseri, Izmir, Erzurum, Bursa, Samsun, and Yozgat to “train religious teachers for our secondary and equivalent schools and teacher training schools”. The Faculty of Islamic Sciences of Atatürk University was opened in 1971.

When we look at the pedagogical education of this period, we see a 2 h pedagogy course per week in the 4th grade of Ankara University, Faculty of Theology, in the 1953–1954 academic year. However, this course was taught as a general psychology or philosophy of education for a long time, until it was included among educational sciences courses under religious education in the 1979–1980 academic year, and it was not an applied course (Bilgin and Selçuk 1991). Similarly, although the faculties of theology, the faculty of Islamic sciences, and the Higher Islamic Institutes were established in parallel with developments in the field of religious education—religious culture and moral knowledge (RCMK) courses that started to be taught in primary and secondary education and the Imam Hatip Schools that were opened—to train teachers in this field (Bilgin and Selçuk 1991; Öcal 1998), they did not include the teaching of vocational knowledge courses in their programs until 1972.

These courses started to be taught from that date onwards and teaching practices were carried out (Aydın 2016). The teaching of vocational knowledge courses, taken only by those who wanted to become teachers, consisted of “Introduction to Education, History of Turkish Education, Turkish National Education Organization, Comparative Education, Educational Psychology, Educational Sociology, General Teaching Knowledge and Application Studies” (Aydın 2016, pp. 171–72). Furthermore, these courses were deemed insufficient, and the Higher Islamic Institutes programs were reformed in 1979, adding new courses to the teaching profession courses which were, “General Education Methods, Measurement and Evaluation, Educational Administration and Research Techniques” (Duman 1991, pp. 181–83).

The period after 1980 can be called a period when institutionalization began for religious education. In 1982, with a decision by the Council of Higher Education, the Higher Islamic Institutes were transformed into faculties of theology and connected to universities. For example, the Faculty of Islamic Sciences was merged with the Erzurum Higher Islamic Institute and transformed into the Faculty of Theology. The programs of these faculties included the teaching of vocational knowledge courses and teaching practice (Öcal 1986). In addition, with the 1982 Constitution, the RCMK course was made compulsory from primary school to high school. This development can be interpreted as strengthening programs aimed at training religious education teachers and further developing religious education departments in faculties of theology. In this process, the name of the “Department of Religious Education” was changed to the “Department of Educational Sciences” and then the “Main Science Branch of Religious Education”, and the responsibility for the teaching of vocational knowledge courses was given to this department (Aşıkoğlu 1994, p. 87). Based on the decisions of the eleventh National Education Council, the determined teaching profession courses included nine courses, each consisting of three hours and 30 days of particular education practices. The official definition of theology faculties as institutions that train teachers was adopted in 1989 (Official Gazette 1989).

Regarding the February 28 process in 1997, it is possible to describe the period as the years of drift. The closure of Imam Hatip Middle Schools through the decision to adopt eight-year-long uninterrupted education, the reduction in Imam Hatip High Schools and quotas via the application of coefficients, and the decrease in the student resources of theology faculties caused a comprehensive rupture and severe contraction in the field of religious education. In terms of the training of teachers in higher religious education, a significant change implemented in this period was the opening of the “primary education religious culture and moral knowledge” (PERCMK) department within the faculty of theology. Accordingly, the faculties of theology started to implement two different programs: the “PERCMK” and an “undergraduate theology program”. During this process, teaching profession courses were removed from the theology undergraduate programs, and instead, a “non-thesis master’s program” was implemented where students could take these courses after graduation (Ayhan 2004; Aydın 2016). In this way, the theology faculties for the first time tried an alternative program suitable for employment, outside of the application of a uniform program.

The period after 2000 can be considered as the years of calm and recovery in the context of higher religious education. While the PERCMK and theology undergraduate programs continued in the theology faculties, the Council of Higher Education transferred the PERCMK department from the theology faculties to the education faculties. It changed its programs in 2006 because the work of teacher training belonged to the education faculties (YÖK 2007). In the same year, the theology undergraduate completion program (ILITAM) was implemented through distance education for graduates of the theology associate degree and the theology vocational school who passed the vertical transfer exam, which is still a matter of debate today. This school’s graduates have the same status and rights as graduates of formal theology (Ev 2012).

After the transfer of the PERCMK to the faculties of education in 2006, non-thesis master’s programs were opened outside Ankara University so that graduates of the theology undergraduate programs could take teacher training courses (Ev 2012). This practice was abandoned in 2010, and a formation certificate program was initiated (Keskin 2015). In 2012, the PERCMK department was transferred from the faculties of education back to the faculties of theology, thus returning the structure of the faculties of theology to its 1998 state. In 2015, student admissions to the PERCMK departments in the faculties of theology were stopped.

By 2011, it was evident that a different name other than theology had re-emerged in higher religious education. Islamic sciences faculties began to reopen in 2011. Although these faculties differ from the faculties of theology in terms of their academic structures (Bayraktar 2022), they have the same opportunities in terms of employment rights and fields for their graduates. The decision taken by the Council of Higher Education in 2015, regarding “teaching Arabic Language and Rhetoric, Tafsir, Hadith and Fiqh courses over at least six semesters” and “teaching Quran Reading and Tajweed courses over every semester as they are currently” has been interpreted by both the public and the academy as aiming to reduce courses such as philosophy in the theology faculties (Şekerci and Koç 2022; Gümüş Sarı 2023).

Finally, the Council of Higher Education decided that “at least 25 h of pedagogical formation courses will be added to the current undergraduate programs of the faculties of Theology/Islamic Sciences/Islamic and Religious Sciences and will be implemented in new undergraduate programs starting from the 2017–2018 academic year”. Thus, the training of teachers for religious courses returned to where it had started (Arıcı 2018, p. 883). Currently, teacher training courses lasting at least 25 h are taught throughout the undergraduate period, as was the case between 1982 and 1998. The teacher education courses offered within this scope are “Introduction to Education, Teaching Principles and Methods, Classroom Management, Teaching Technologies, Educational Psychology, Guidance and Special Education, Measurement and Evaluation in Education, Special Teaching Methods and Teaching Practice consisting of one semester of practice in schools affiliated with the Ministry of National Education”. The century-long adventure of religious education and pedagogy in theology faculties in Türkiye is given in

Table 1. The century-long adventure of religious education and pedagogy in theology faculties in Türkiye.

Period	Definition	Religious Education in Formal Education	Higher Religious Education	Pedagogical Education
1923–1949	Lost Years	Although it was provided early on, religious education ceased after 1933.	The first faculty of theology was opened in 1924 but closed in 1933.	Pedagogical education has not been provided.
1949–1980	Efforts to Exist	Religious education began with elective religious education and Imam Hatip Schools.	Faculties of theology were reopened, and HEI was established to train religious education teachers.	A limited pedagogy course was offered until 1972, and after 1972, pedagogical education was expanded, especially in HEI.
1980–1997	Institutionalization	Religious education became compulsory in formal education.	HEI was closed and transformed into a faculty of theology.	Pedagogical education was given together with undergraduate education.
1997–2002	Skidding	Various restrictions were imposed on formal religious education.	The quotas of theology faculties were limited, and different programs were opened to train religious teachers.	Pedagogy education was removed from undergraduate theology education and transferred to the newly opened PERCMK and non-thesis master’s programs.
2002–2024	Calm and Recovery	Restrictions on formal religious education were gradually lifted.	New theology faculties were opened, and their quotas were increased.	After various attempts, pedagogy education was again included in the undergraduate theology faculty program.

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3.2. Religious Education and Pedagogy: International Perspective

Religious education and pedagogy are essential in transferring societies’ social, cultural, and moral values to future generations. For this reason, religious education and pedagogy programs worldwide vary according to countries’ religious, cultural, social, and educational contexts. While the religious and moral norms specific to each society shape the content and methods of religious education, pedagogical approaches also play a critical role in providing this education.

Although religious education is compulsory in England, families can exempt their children from religious education. The course content is a multi-faith and non-doctrinal rather than being a Bible-centered Christian education (Zengin and Hendek 2019). Religious education enables students to recognize different religions and worldviews, understand societal differences, and know how individuals and communities can live together respectfully (QCA 2004). Although religious education in public schools functions as described, England allows all religions to set up their own schools. Although most schools are Christian, non-Christians can also establish schools and provide education. In recent years, Muslim communities have also set up independent, state-funded schools (Hammad and Shah 2019).

In Germany, religious courses, which are included at all levels from the first grade of primary school to the last grade of high school, are given for two hours per week in some states and three hours in others (Koç and Küçük 2021). At the same time, although Catholics and Protestants have a significant weight in religious education offered in public schools, other religions, especially Islam, also find a place in the general education system (Yılmaz 2021). The establishment of Islamic religious education programs at universities, to train Islamic theologians and religious education teachers in Germany, began in 2011, followed by the introduction Islamic religious education as a regular school subject in 2012. Eleven universities offer these faith-oriented studies (Dreier and Wagner 2020). For example, the Center for Islamic Theology at the University of Münster is one of the largest institutions of Islamic theology in Western Europe, with about 900 students (Khorchide 2020); another one is the Islamic religious education teacher training program in the German state of Hessen (Sarıkaya 2021). The primary purpose of these programs, which are generally opened at undergraduate and graduate levels, is to train teachers for Islamic religious courses to be given in formal education institutions (Sözen 2022).

The KRLE course, “Christianity, Religion, Life Philosophy, and Ethics”, is among the compulsory courses in Norway. Stating that it offers equal and high-quality education to all children with the understanding of “one school for all”, Norway argues that by including all religions in KRLE courses, each student has the opportunity to have basic information about their own religious beliefs and find something for themselves (Gelici 2020a, p. 68). In Denmark, religious education is generally provided according to Christian teachings, but within Christianity, it is also offered separately for Catholic and non-Catholic students, depending on their sectarian differences. While religious courses are seen as a matter of faith in France, all students must attend Catholic courses in Poland. In Portugal, religious education is provided by the church, while in Serbia, the religion with the most followers is taught at a given school. In Sweden, schools affiliated with churches are banned and religious courses are taught within the scope of social sciences (Turan 2014). Each European state seems to have its own style of dealing with religion and religious education. It is possible to find many sources on these styles in the education literature (Berger 2021; Jackson et al. 2014). These different national contexts have in common the effort to think about Islam through academic means, often with a strong focus on the situation in their country and the provision of religious teachers and other specialized training at universities (Engelhardt 2021).

These different practices worldwide clearly show how religious education varies according to countries’ religious, cultural, social, and educational contexts. Each society’s unique religious and socio-cultural structure, historical background, and religious and moral norms shape religious education’s form, content, and methods. Accordingly, pedagogical education and programs to train religious teachers differ from country to country and are structured within various academic approaches and regional differences. These programs aim to ensure that students acquire knowledge on religious issues, develop critical thinking skills, and transfer this knowledge to others through pedagogical methods. These programs generally cover theology, the history of religions, the philosophy of religion, moral education, religious education, and teaching profession courses.

In Europe, the United States (USA), and many other countries worldwide, higher religious education programs are offered within faculties of theology and religious studies. These programs usually focus on a particular religious tradition, such as Christian theology, Islamic theology, or Jewish studies. In the 70-year history of Islamic schools in North America, there has yet to be an accredited teacher education program to educate and professionally equip Islamic school teachers with Islamic pedagogy (Memon 2011). However, for several decades, pioneering efforts have been made in many European countries through higher education programs for Islamic theologians and religious teachers. These are Islamic religious education programs for the training and qualification of Muslim teachers who provide Islamic religious education in public schools (Alberts 2007; Jackson et al. 2014). These programs are offered as nuanced pre-service, graduate, school-based orientation, and continuing professional learning grounded in their faith’s educational values and perspectives so that faith informs practice holistically (Memon et al. 2020).

Vanderbilt University School of Theology in the USA offers a four-year education based on the Evangelical sect and trains teachers and clergy for religious schools. The religious education sciences program at San Diego State University, which was established for the same purpose, has included the study of all religions, such as Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese religions in its program (Turan 2014). In Germany, the Institute of Islamic Culture and Religious Studies at the University of Frankfurt trains teachers of Islamic religious courses at the secondary school level. It aims for its graduates to gain knowledge and skills in basic Islamic sciences, philosophy, religious sciences, and pedagogy (Sözen 2022). In addition, the Karlsruhe, Ludwigsburg, and Weingarten pedagogical colleges offer certificate programs that allow both their teacher candidates and teachers working in existing educational institutions to specialize in teaching Islamic religious courses (Sözen 2022).

To become a teacher in England, one must have a bachelor’s degree and Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). To have QTS, receiving an initial teacher education is necessary, equivalent to pedagogical formation education in Türkiye. There are different methods of receiving teacher formation education. These are, “teacher education together with undergraduate education, postgraduate teacher education, and school-based teacher education”. Students studying in departments such as theology, religious sciences, philosophy, and sociology who want to become religious teachers can use the first option during their undergraduate education. In contrast, graduates can use the other two options (Zengin and Hendek 2019).

The Norwegian school system is based on adapted learning for everyone in an inclusive environment (Regjeringen 2024). For this reason, all teachers in Norway have basic knowledge and competence in teaching religious education, which is compulsory in schools. The KRLE course is given to all prospective teachers and Norwegians in the teacher education curriculum (Gelici 2020b). In Belgium, students studying in the Theology Department of the Catholic University of Louvain can teach religious courses by taking a one-year pedagogical formation training course after completing a four-year theology education program. Similarly, in many countries, such as “Austria, Finland, Netherlands, Scotland, Canada, Poland, Romania, and Russia”, graduates who have completed a four-year theology education program can work as religious teachers if they meet the general teacher requirements in their countries (Turan 2014, pp. 4–6).

The similarities and differences between religious education and pedagogy programs at universities in different countries are shaped according to the characteristics of the countries’ religious, cultural, and education systems. Although these programs have everyday purposes, such as acquiring religious knowledge, developing critical thinking, and training teachers, they vary significantly in their application methods and content. When an evaluation is made in the context of similarities, academic and theoretical focus and teacher professional knowledge education come to the fore. Religious education programs in many universities are based on theological and religious knowledge. Students are given intensive academic education on religious texts, the history of religions, the philosophy of religion and ethics. These theoretical foundations emerge as a standard feature in theology faculties and broader religious sciences programs (Sözen 2022; Turan 2014). The religious education programs of universities aim to provide teacher candidates with pedagogical skills through teaching methods, classroom management, measurement and evaluation techniques, and student development. In this respect, religious education is structured in accordance with the pedagogical framework, and religious teachers are taught how to effectively convey religious subjects to students.

The main differences in the curricula of universities that train teachers of religious courses are the purpose and target audience of religious education, the content and focus of the curriculum, and the pedagogical approach and teaching methods. Some programs, mainly aimed at training clergy, focus on teacher candidates targeted to be trained within a particular sect or religious understanding and enable them to gain theological knowledge, leadership skills, and spiritual guidance capacity. Other programs, based on a comparative examination of different religions, allow teacher candidates to gain a broad perspective on religions and religious traditions (Yılmaz 2021). While some programs adopt classical and traditional teaching methods based on reading texts on religious education and teaching, interactive pedagogical methods are prominent in some programs. In the religious education in these programs, group work, discussions, and using digital resources to increase student participation come to the fore.

When we look at policies for the training of religious teachers worldwide, we see that two basic models are used: consecutive and simultaneous. In the simultaneous model, general academic courses and professional courses are given together during teacher education. In the consecutive model, graduates who have completed their undergraduate education and want to become teachers participate in teacher education programs. The application of pedagogical formation in Türkiye can be an example of this consecutive model. While some countries, such as Denmark, Finland, Japan, Poland, and Greece, prefer only the simultaneous model—in other words, there is no pedagogical formation certificate program in these countries—in France, only the consecutive model is used in teacher training, meaning that teacher candidates are given professional knowledge training after undergraduate education. In many countries, such as Türkiye, Germany, England, the Netherlands, Sweden, the USA, Hungary, Portugal, and Switzerland, both the consecutive and simultaneous models are used (Çelik and Bozgeyikli 2019).

When the pre-service education periods of teacher candidates are examined, it is possible to say that the worldwide trend is toward master’s education for middle and high school levels, including religious education. Many countries, including Germany, Austria, France, Iceland, Italy, Finland, Czech Republic, Spain and Portugal, require a master’s degree, including religious education, to become a secondary school teacher. The number of countries on the list for high school-level teaching is increasing, and countries such as Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, Poland, and Belgium have recently joined the list of countries requiring a master’s degree (Kalkan 2021; Çelik and Bozgeyikli 2019). These data now reveal that the need for a master’s degree to become a teacher is a rising trend worldwide.

The courses emphasized in teacher training also vary from country to country. In Türkiye, approximately one-fifth of the courses—in terms of hours—in theology faculties are allocated to pedagogical formation and teaching practice education, while four-fifths provide field education (Turan 2017b). However, the percentage of teaching profession knowledge courses is higher in undergraduate education provided for other teaching professions, and with the decision taken by the Council of Higher Education in 2018, 30–35% of the courses in undergraduate teaching programs were determined as teaching profession knowledge courses, 10–15% as general culture courses, and 45–50% as field education courses (YÖK 2018).

When we look at other countries, it is evident that Germany and Denmark focus on field education, Finland focuses on field education and pedagogical practices, England and Japan focus on field education and teaching practices, and Belgium focuses on teaching practices and field education (Kalkan 2021). Given this, when teaching practices are evaluated by country, Türkiye is one of the countries that allocates the least time to teaching practice, with 30 days, while more than 80 or even 100 days are generally allocated to teaching practice around the world (Çelik and Bozgeyikli 2019). The comparison of pedagogical education for training religious teachers in Türkiye and the world, with different parameters, is given in

Table 2. Comparison of pedagogical education for training religious teachers in Türkiye and the world.

Country	Pedagogical Education	Institution Teacher Training Model	Education Degree	Education Period	Internship Period
Türkiye	Theology faculties and education faculties certificate programs	Concurrent and Consecutive	Bachelor’s Degree	Four years	30 days
USA	Theology and Religious Sciences Faculties	Concurrent and Consecutive	Bachelor’s Degree	Four years	Varies by region
Germany	Theology faculties and pedagogical colleges certificate programs	Consecutive	Master’s Degree	Five years	282 days
France	Teacher Training Institute	Consecutive	Master’s Degree	Six years	120 days
England	Theology, religious sciences, philosophy, sociology, etc., departments	Consecutive	Master’s Degree	Four years	120 days
Norway	Theology Faculties and Colleges	Consecutive and Consecutive	Master’s Degree	Five years	110 days

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3.3. Rethinking Religious Education Pedagogy Programs

The steps that need to be taken to update and develop religious education and pedagogy programs in Türkiye are of great importance in terms of following developments in the international arena, meeting social needs, and providing students with a more qualified education. As such, it can be said that the first issue to be discussed is the review and updating of the curriculum. It can seen that the pedagogy and teaching practice training provided at universities in Türkiye is behind the world in terms of field knowledge, pedagogy, and teaching practices, and the pedagogy training in theology faculties is also behind other teacher training programs in the country in terms of quantity. This situation reveals that religious-course teachers in Türkiye start their profession with less pedagogy training than their colleagues in the country and the world.

Different evaluations have been carried out regarding what the purpose and mission of these institutions will/should be, starting with the first theology faculties in the Republican period. In addition to approaches, stating that theology faculties should train competent students in the fields of religion and theology, evaluations also emphasize that the country and society should train personnel for every field they need in religious education and religious services (Köylü 2018). The first discussion at this stage may be about the “what” of the knowledge taught in theology faculties. In religious education and pedagogy discussions in theology faculties, academic knowledge is sometimes considered “high-status” knowledge, while professional knowledge is considered “low-status” knowledge (Gümüş Sarı 2023, p. 424). This hierarchical view, established by dividing the faculty into academic departments, such as Fundamental Islamic Sciences, Philosophy and Religious Sciences, and Islamic History and Arts, and by associating it with employment areas such as teaching and religious officials, is also reflected in the education process. Following this discussion, it is essential to discuss the issue by considering the developments in today’s education world and social needs, examining examples from around the world, and developing alternative models that complement each other without rejecting each other by considering the opinions of all stakeholders.

Another step to improve religious education and pedagogy in theology faculties is to ensure the integration of modern educational approaches into all undergraduate courses and implement a holistic approach. This includes integrating not only the teaching profession courses but also all courses in the undergraduate program with modern pedagogical approaches, educational technologies, using digital resources and interactive teaching methods. Herein, it is essential to spread methods such as project-based learning, group work, and classroom discussions that will increase the active participation of students in undergraduate education courses. For example, as candidates for religious education teaching in theology faculties, students experience their first presentation experience in the unique teaching methods course in the third grade at the earliest. The constructivist approach applied in the Turkish education system for many years has not found its place in the classroom environments where undergraduate courses in theology faculties are taught, while it is expected to be applied by the religious-course teachers who graduate from the faculty while practicing their profession. This situation is also valid for the holistic approach currently implemented in schools with the Türkiye Century Education Model.

Today, when we talk about a new program based on a holistic approach, religious teachers who graduated without seeing the practices of how to create such an environment in the classroom will most likely teach their lessons in a similar manner when they become teachers since they received education in a traditional and transmissionist paradigm both before and during the undergraduate program. This is because “they will teach as they have learned, not as they have been ‘taught’ how to teach” (Dewey 2007, p. 275). It is a factor that continues the understanding of “those who know teach” in the field of theology. In current educational approaches, one of the main notions is that “for a person to teach what he knows, he must also know how to teach”. For this notion to replace the aforementioned traditionalist understanding, students need to be holistically introduced to these different methods and techniques in all courses during their undergraduate years. In short, since teacher candidates have learned with narrative methods for years, they will continue to perceive learning as the whole of specific facts, rules, behaviors, and attitudes developed over time. In this process, they will create a perspective that sees the teacher as someone who tells and does what they need to learn (Fosnot 2007). Therefore, if the aim is to impart such an approach, it should not be forgotten that it will not be enough to present it in a few universities’ program courses (Fosnot 2007).

The fact that teacher training activities in theology faculties are only accepted as a part of teaching profession knowledge courses and, accordingly, as a branch of religious education, creates a vast area in terms of the competencies that graduates should have, but it leads to a narrowing of the field of application (Gümüş Sarı 2023). Even though teacher training seems to be grouped into three separate groups: teaching profession knowledge courses, field education, and general culture courses, these areas should be processed in a complementary manner due to the nature of the teaching profession. These three areas should support each other and be in constant interaction; teaching profession courses may seem to provide technical skills, but they cannot be provided independently of field knowledge (Altaş 2009). For example, although faith learning is a part of teaching profession courses, it should also be planned and implemented, and materials should be developed and evaluated as field courses. A faculty member who is not knowledgeable about this learning area cannot contribute to religious education teacher candidates. Similarly, a theology education that does not take into account the units in the field of faith learning, and the questions and difficulties in terms of understanding that may arise from the age groups to which these units are taught, will be inadequate in providing the teacher with specialized field knowledge (Altaş 2009).

Another issue that needs to be addressed under the title of rethinking religious education and pedagogy in theology faculties is the structuring of courses in a way that will meet today’s needs and solve social problems. For example, a religion teacher in Türkiye most likely does not receive an undergraduate education that will meet the needs of the classroom environment on sectarian issues such as Alevism, Ja’farism, and even Shafiism, which he will frequently encounter in his professional life, including religious structures, and communities within society; issues of faith such as deism, agnosticism, and atheism; current religious issues such as jihad, Islamophobia, etc., which are on the agenda all over the world. It has been emphasized in some field studies that other religions and beliefs, and even different interpretations within Islam, are not given enough space in theology programs, and as a result, teachers who are trained in these faculties do not see themselves as competent on these issues (Kaymakcan 2009; Turan 2017a; Yemenici 2014). For example, in Norway, where religious education is compulsory—which is one of the reasons why the ECHR convicted Norway—religious education teacher candidates are trained on children’s rights (Gelici 2020b).

Another issue that needs to be reconsidered in religious education and pedagogy in theology faculties is the quantity and quality of the student source. In the current situation, the high quotas in theology faculties, the low entrance scores, and the fact that they continue to decrease yearly, stand out as an essential problem. At this stage, it is vital to refrain from giving quotas to the evening education programs of all major programs in state universities, including theology faculties, for the 2024–2025 academic year and to carry out a process to close them. In addition, the gradual closure of the ILITAM program, considered a significant problem area for theology faculties and religious education teaching in various studies, will be essential to ensure the supply and demand balance in religious education teaching. Another renewal area for religious education teaching is updating the conditions for entering a faculty of theology. Since the appeal of choosing the faculties of theology is decreasing for successful students, it is thought that the requirement of ranking above 300,000 in the college entrance exam (YKS), which has been introduced for other teaching programs, will also provide a specific improvement in the student profile if it is introduced for the faculties of theology that train religious education teachers.

When the process and practices in the training of teachers for religious education in Türkiye are taken into consideration, it can be observed that decisions in this field change frequently. As presented in the first section, religious education and pedagogy programs in higher education have changed approximately eighteen times since the first faculty of theology, Darülfünun, until today (Gümüş Sarı 2023), and it can even be seen that a new change is on the way. The fact that changes that occur on average every five years are so radical and rapid brings uncertainties and concerns and prevents long-term planning. The latest planned change is that the National Education Academy, which will be implemented in 2024, envisages that teacher candidates will be given 550 h of compulsory training before starting their profession (MEA 2024b). This training is planned to last three semesters (10–14 weeks) for graduates of education faculties and four semesters for graduates of other faculties (MEA 2024a). Questions such as what will happen to the teaching knowledge courses in theology faculties in such circumstances, whether these courses will, depending on student selection, be chosen by the students, and whether those who did not take these courses in their undergraduate education will continue to have the right to become teachers, have not yet been answered.

The existence of these questions is the most important indicator that institutions that are stakeholders in teacher training, in general, and in religious education, in particular, do not cooperate. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to ensure stability in the teacher training system and to establish a structure that aims to increase the quality of teachers. The processes of teacher training, appointment, and professional development should be considered as a whole, and it should be ensured that the Ministry of National Education and the Council of Higher Education work in harmony. In particular, a new teacher training system should be established in line with the views and suggestions of theology faculties, without separating religious education teaching from other teaching professions, but also whilst taking into account its unique structure.

4. Conclusions

This study compares religious education and pedagogy programs in the faculties of theology in Türkiye on their 100th anniversary to similar programs in different countries. The study aims not to show that one system applied worldwide is better than another but to analyze the historical development, current status, strengths, difficulties encountered, and future potential of the religious education and pedagogy process.

Türkiye has a deep-rooted heritage but has continued modernization for nearly two centuries. Religious education in Türkiye has undergone significant changes, especially during the Republican period. Different approaches were adopted in religious education during this process, and education policies were shaped accordingly. While the first period of the Republic is seen as a period of lost years for religious education, a period of existence was experienced after the 1950s, and an institutionalization process was experienced in the 1980s. While a period of drift was experienced with severe ruptures in 1997, it is possible to define the period after 2000 as years of calm and recovery. This situation shows that Türkiye’s religious education and pedagogy programs have continuously transformed in line with historical and social dynamics and are still open to development. When compared to religious education programs worldwide, it has been observed that Türkiye’s programs attempt to build a bridge between the Western approaches and the Islamic world’s traditional education systems.

When religious education and pedagogy programs in different countries are examined, it has been determined that although the programs have common goals, such as acquiring religious knowledge, developing critical thinking, and training teachers, they show great diversity in application methods and content. Significant differences exist between them regarding religious education’s purpose and target audience, curriculum content, pedagogical approaches, and teaching methods. When compared to examples in the world, it can be seen that religious teachers in Türkiye start their profession by receiving less pedagogical training than their colleagues both in Türkiye and around the world. Therefore, the first issue that needs to be emphasized is providing sufficient pedagogical training, in terms of quantity and quality, to theology students, a significant portion of whom are religious-course teachers.

Following dozens of significant changes and transformations experienced over a century, at the point reached today, taking steps regarding the quantity and quality of student resources in theology faculties will improve both higher religious education and the quality of religious-course teachers, because it is evident that the current quotas and student resources, which cause a significant accumulation in the field of employment, are not sustainable. An important issue that needs to be discussed within the scope of higher religious education and pedagogy is the review of the curriculum and the discussion of alternatives. When social developments and needs are taken into consideration—employment opportunities in national and international institutions and organizations such as the Ministry of National Education, Presidency of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Youth and Sports, etc.—it can be seen that a single-type and academic-oriented curriculum does not meet these needs.

Another issue that needs to be emphasized in higher religious education and pedagogy is that course content should be structured to meet today’s needs and solve social problems. In addition, the teaching profession courses in the programs of the theology faculties can be diversified with elective courses, taking into account social needs. In this way, the professional competence of religious teachers will be increased. Another issue is the integration of modern educational approaches into all undergraduate courses and the implementation of a holistic approach. This means integrating not only teaching profession courses but all courses in the undergraduate program with modern pedagogical approaches and educational technologies, as well as using digital resources and interactive teaching methods. As a result, it is envisaged that Türkiye’s religious education programs will have a more inclusive and pedagogically innovative structure with reforms that will be made in the future and which consider social needs and international approaches.