Interpretations of “True Knowledge” in Zhuangzi’s Philosophy

Abstract

Genuine Humans can achieve a way of existence in harmony with the “Way of Heaven” and open up a meaningful world where Heaven and humanity are integrated. Therefore, the “Way of Heaven”, as the true source of value for true knowledge, highlights the “transcendental” aspect of true knowledge. On the other hand, true knowledge includes the compassionate understanding and sincere empathy of a Genuine Human towards the unavoidable fact of the human world, thereby manifesting its “practical” dimension in a harmonious sense.

1. Introduction

“Knowledge” is an inherent potential of humans and also a significant marker that distinguishes humans from other entities; thus, it holds great significance for humans. Zhuangzi, a philosopher from the pre-Qin period, exhibited a rather self-aware and comprehensive contemplation of “knowledge”. He conducted considerable introspection and criticism of how ordinary people misuse “knowledge” and held up “true knowledge” as his ideal aspiration. Consequently, “true knowledge” constitutes an important aspect of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, prominently reflecting the inner tensions within his thoughts. It serves as a crucial pathway to understanding Zhuangzi’s philosophy.

In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, there are roughly three main interpretations of true knowledge:

Firstly, scholars like Chad Hansen, David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, Lisa Raphals1 indicate that true knowledge is a kind of spiritual and illuminating “knowledge of insight”, which must be achieved by “discarding the physical body” (離形)2 and “eliminating cleverness” (去知)3. By discarding the physical body, one moves beyond the distractions of sensory experiences, and by eliminating cleverness, one transcends the limitations of conventional intellectualism. Together, these practices lead to a form of insight that is more intuitive and aligned with the Dao, unbound by the limitations of both the physical world and the constructs of the mind. This wisdom is often described as “spiritual” or “illuminating” because it arises from direct, unmediated experience of the Dao.

Secondly, scholars such as Brook Ziporyn and Harold D. Roth4 examined “true knowledge” in the context of skill development and application. They explore how “true knowledge” redefines skill development by moving away from strict adherence to traditional methods and towards a more adaptable form of expertise. They emphasize that Zhuangzi’s concept of “true knowledge” encourages a shift from strict adherence to traditional methods toward a more flexible and adaptive approach to expertise. This aligns with Zhuangzi’s broader critique of fixed doctrines and rigid thinking. In the context of skill development, this means that a true master is not someone who merely follows prescribed techniques but someone who can adapt and respond to the unique demands of each situation.5 Thus, “true knowledge” involves an acute awareness of the present moment and the ability to act spontaneously, without the constraints of preconceived notions or habitual responses.

Thirdly, true knowledge, particularly at the existential level, has been studied by scholars such as David Wong, Hans-Georg Moeller, and Yang Guorong 楊國榮.6 They argue that true knowledge is intrinsically linked to the state of one’ s life and existence. According to their perspective, true knowledge can only be attained when an individual has reached the pinnacle of self-cultivation. This means that the depth and quality of one’s knowledge are directly proportional to the level of personal cultivation they have achieved. The essence of their argument is that true knowledge cannot be separated from the process of self-cultivation. The level of one’s cultivation determines the scope and depth of one’s understanding, with “true knowledge” representing the highest form of understanding, attainable only after one has reached the utmost level of self-cultivation. Thus, true knowledge is not merely an intellectual achievement but a reflection of one’s spiritual and existential development.

Regarding the three approaches to interpreting “true knowledge” mentioned above, we can reflect as follows:

Firstly, understanding true knowledge as an “intuitive knowledge of insight” aligns with Zhuangzi’s proposition of self-cultivation through transcending the limitations of desire and intellect. However, this interpretation risks misconstruing Zhuangzi’s concept of “true knowledge” as a static, contemplative wisdom. Such a view might overlook a crucial aspect of Zhuangzi’s philosophy: true knowledge is not merely a fixed state of intellectual insight but manifests dynamically in life practice—the realization of true knowledge is not static; it unfolds through an ongoing, interactive engagement with the world, involving a continuous adaptation to and harmonization with the ever-changing nature of reality.7

Secondly, interpreting true knowledge as “knowledge of practice” shifts the focus from the subject as a static observer to a “new subject” full of creative potential in the context of technical practices. However, in reality, every individual has a pre-established heart framed by specific social backgrounds, cultural environments, and life experiences.8 Unlike the case of skill development and application, when making judgements in specific ethical circumstances, it is impossible for them to be entirely devoid of values, namely, while technical skills might be developed and applied in a more straightforward, value-neutral way, ethical judgments are inherently value-laden. According to Chen Yun 陳贇, it is the pre-established heart (成心) that enables each individual to have his/her own perspective toward a certain thing or problem, hence the possibility of forming viewpoints; on the other hand, each viewpoint is unavoidably configured by a certain perspective which is bound to be biased.9 Also, the “things” encountered in ethical contexts often possess complexities that extend beyond those found in technical activities. This implies that when we examine “true knowledge”, we must prioritize its ethical context over its technical context.10 Furthermore, since Zhuangzi asserts the existence of “true knowledge”, it suggests that there is indeed a standard by which knowledge can be judged as “true”, even though individual differences in knowledge may arise due to personal biases or fixed perspectives (“pre-established heart”). At the same time, such “true knowledge” will inevitably lead to a way of life in reality that differs from that based on conventional knowledge. Therefore, exploring the criteria for evaluating true knowledge and the corresponding way of life is of paramount importance, and this is the central issue I aim to address in my article, which is primarily addressed in the second section.

Thirdly, approaching true knowledge from the perspective of self-cultivation, practical life, and the elevation of one’s spiritual state accurately captures the essence of Zhuangzi’s concern for human existence. However, these scholars have not delved deeper into what kind of attitudes and principles a person who has reached the highest level of self-cultivation (the “Genuine Human” as described by Zhuangzi) should embody, especially in ethical relationships during actual practice. This exploration is crucial because merely discussing “true knowledge” from the standpoint of life cultivation and spiritual elevation risks being superficial. We still cannot fully understand how “true knowledge” attained through the highest level of cultivation manifests in real-world practice. Therefore, it is essential to grasp the specific forms in which “true knowledge” manifests in the way a Genuine Human lives their life, as well as in the context of their relationships with others and the world. I will focus on this issue in the third section of the article.

Building on the above analysis, a more nuanced approach to interpreting true knowledge involves a deep exploration of its value dimensions and how these dimensions influence human existence and interactions. To begin with, it is crucial to recognize that true knowledge is not just an abstract concept but one that carries significant value implications, particularly in the context of life practices, with a special emphasis on ethical domains. True knowledge, in this sense, is not merely about possessing accurate information or intellectual insight; it is about understanding the foundational source of value that underpins and justifies this knowledge.

This foundational value is what gives true knowledge its significance and guides its application in real-world situations. To comprehend this, we must inquire about how true knowledge is justified—how it derives its authority and why it is considered “true”. This inquiry extends beyond theoretical contemplation and enters the realm of practical life, where true knowledge shapes specific modes of existence and interaction. These modes are not static; they evolve as individuals engage with the fluid and dynamic nature of human practices. Thus, true knowledge is realized and expressed in the ongoing, lived experiences of individuals as they navigate the complexities of life.

When true knowledge is applied within the context of human relationships, it has the potential to foster a unique understanding of what it means to exist as a human being. This understanding is not merely intellectual but deeply existential—it influences how individuals perceive themselves, relate to others, and engage with the world around them. True knowledge, therefore, can lead to a distinctive mode of interaction, one that is characterized by a harmonious alignment with the ever-changing nature of reality.

In light of this, our exploration of true knowledge must focus on the existential level. This involves investigating the foundational source of value that underlies true knowledge and examining how this value manifests in specific forms of existence and interaction. Such an exploration requires us to consider how true knowledge guides and shapes the lived experiences of individuals within the ever-evolving practices of human life. It also requires us to recognize that true knowledge is not a static possession but a dynamic process—a way of being that continually adapts to and harmonizes with the shifting landscapes of reality. Ultimately, this approach to true knowledge emphasizes the importance of understanding that it not just as an intellectual achievement but as a lived experience that deeply influences the way individuals exist in the world. By prioritizing the ethical context and focusing on the existential implications of true knowledge, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of its value and significance in human life. This perspective allows us to appreciate how true knowledge contributes to the formation of a meaningful and authentic way of life, one that is responsive to the complexities of human existence and the ever-changing nature of reality.

2. The Foundational Source of Value of “True Knowledge”

Zhuangzi provides a clear definition of “true knowledge”: “there can be ‘a Genuine Understanding’ only after there is such a thing as someone who is himself genuine even while being human—human yet genuine, genuine yet human: the Genuine-Human.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 53)11. This means that whether “knowledge” is considered “true” depends on whether the subject in the process of practice has reached an ideal character—the Genuine Human. Only through diligent cultivation to become a Genuine Human can their knowledge be called true.

Regarding the true knowledge of a Genuine-Human, Zhuangzi also offers specific explanations. He says that a Genuine-Human can “understand what is done by Heaven” and “understand what is to be done by the human”. He further adds, “So how could I know whether what I call the Heavenly is not really the human? How could I know whether what I call the human is not really the Heavenly?” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 53). Professor Wang Bangxiong 王邦雄 explains: since the Heavenly way (天道) transcends and is inherent in all things in the universe, individuals can, through their inner essence, come to understand the Heavenly Way, allowing them to communicate with all things in the universe. At the same time, while individuals can indeed understand the Heavenly Way, they also have various limitations. To truly practice the Heavenly Way, self-cultivation is required to transcend these limitations. Also, the Heavenly Way that individuals ultimately practice, and the related world, are not only real but also profound. This world is far from being a purely objective physical world.12

On this basis, a subsequent question arises: how does the “Heavenly Way” specifically guide the Genuine Human’s cognition and practice? After examining the relevant texts in the inner seven chapters, we can analyze it from the following three perspectives. Before proceeding, I would like to briefly discuss how scholars typically understand the concept of “Heaven” (天). Generally, “Heaven” is viewed as a purely objective entity. For instance, Feng Youlan 馮友蘭, in his overview of “Heaven” in Chinese philosophy, identifies five meanings: the material Heaven 物質之天, the ruling Heaven 主宰之天, the Heaven of fate 命運之天, the natural Heaven 自然之天, and the Heaven of moral principles 義理之天.13 Most interpretations of “Heaven” in Zhuangzi’s philosophy also fall within these five categories. However, what I aim to emphasize is that ancient Chinese thinkers, especially Zhuangzi, did not simply see “Heaven” as pure nature (or natural law) or as a force of creation and fate. Rather, they regarded “Heaven” with deep reverence, forming a profound emotional connection to it. This emotional, rather than rational, dimension has often been overlooked by scholars and has not been thoroughly explored. In what follows, I will focus on this perspective to illuminate this particular aspect of “Heaven” in Zhuangzi’s thought.

First and foremost, taking “Heaven” as our parent, a Genuine Human holds sincere gratitude and trust toward “Heaven”. True knowledge is thereby manifested as the knowledge of aligning with the message of Heaven and accepting one’s destiny.

The most important manifestation of aligning with Heaven and accepting destiny is the transcendental spirit exhibited by a Genuine Human when facing death. True knowledge shines forth in the seamless integration of life and death. In Chapter 6, Zhuangzi posits that “Heaven” is nothing more than our parents14 and has a profound connection with humans, as indicated in the statement that “For the Great Clump burdens me with a physical form, labors me with life, eases me with old age and rests me with death. What makes my life good is what makes my death good; that I consider my life good is what makes me consider my death good.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 59). Therefore, people should embrace the belief that “what makes my life something good is what makes my death something good; considering my life good is what makes me consider my death good”, and face life and death with equanimity.

From a purely logical standpoint, we cannot derive a rational inference of “what makes my life something good is what makes my death something good; considering my life good is what makes me consider my death good”. Zhuangzi’s conviction that both life and death can be considered good arises from his deep trust and gratitude towards Heaven, akin to how one treats their parents. He believes that we should accept what happens to us with the heart of a filial child who obeys the commands of Heaven unquestioningly, just as one follows the directions of their parents.

When death is ordained by Heaven, individuals should accept it willingly. Conversely, if they resist (“Now suppose a great master smith were casting metal. If the metal jumped up and said, ‘I insist on being nothing but an Excalibur!’”), the fault lies with them and not with Heaven (“……the smith would surely consider it to be an inauspicious chunk of metal. Now if I, having happened to stumble into a human form, should insist, ‘Only a human! Only a human!’ Creation-Transformation would certainly consider me an inauspicious chunk of person.”15). In this sense, when facing the end of life, a Genuine Human does not passively accept it but rather holds deep appreciation and trust for the natural command of Heaven that nurtures and sustains life. This insights leads to the true knowledge of embracing both life and death, and the subsequent way of existence that Zhuangzi describes as follows: “So now I look upon all heaven and earth as a great furnace, and the Process of Creation-Transformation as a great blacksmith—where could I go that would not be all right?” In fact, Zhuangzi views human life as an integral part of the natural world and the grand process of cosmic transformation. He posits that the changes in all things are infinite, with no beginning and no end. Consequently, death is not a complete annihilation but rather a continuous participation in the ongoing transformation of nature. As Zhuangzi notes, “Now the human form during its time undergoes ten thousand transformations, never stopping for an instant—so the joys it brings must be beyond calculation! Hence the sage uses it to roam and play in that from which nothing ever escapes, where all things are maintained.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 56). If one can still find joy in being human, then the infinite transformations of the human form within the vast process of nature result in a joy that is immeasurable.

Secondly, by taking “Heaven” as the master and maintaining reverence for the “Way of Heaven”, the virtuosity of “Heaven” becomes the source of value for “human virtuosity”. True knowledge is thus born from a heart aligned with the virtuosity of Heaven, and the world it illuminates is the meaningful world of aligning with the virtuosity of Heaven.

In Chapter 6, Zhuangzi criticizes the Confucian sage Yao who told Master Thinkyou “to devote himself wholeheartedly to humankindness and responsible conduct, and to speak clearly of right and wrong”. He says, “Yao has already tattooed your face with humankindness and responsible conduct, and de-nosed you with right and wrong.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 62). The use of “tattoo” and “de-nose” illustrates that worldly benevolence, righteousness, and moral distinctions are like punishments that constrain people. What can truly “wipe away my tattoo and restore my nose” is the “Creator of Things” (Heaven).16 In other words, Zhuangzi believes that only by following the Way of Heaven can one avoid these constraints, hence his joyful exclamation, “My Teacher!” This goes beyond merely indicating that human actions should follow the principles of objective nature; it reflects Zhuangzi’s reverence and praise for the Way of Heaven. When describing the Way of Heaven, Zhuangzi says, “My teacher! My teacher! He destroys all things, but he is not being just. His bounty reaches all things, but he is not being kind. He is an elder to the remotest antiquity, but without being old. He covers and supports heaven and earth and carves out all forms, but without being skillful. It is all the play of his wandering, nothing more.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 62).

Although Zhuangzi does not explicitly mention the virtuosity of “Heaven” as being “uncontrived yet accomplished” (無為而為), his admiration for the Way of Heaven’s accomplishments, such as “his bounty reaches all things”, “he is an elder to the remotest antiquity”, and “he covers and supports heaven and earth and carves out all forms”, while “not being kind”, “without being old”, “without being skillful”, implies a deep reverence and awe for the transcendent and formless virtuosity.17 This is where the spirit of taking the Way of Heaven as one’s teacher lies. Only by taking the Way of Heaven as a master can one mend the injuries of benevolence and righteousness and restore one’s complete virtuosity. For this reason, in the “Outer” and “Miscellaneous” chapters, Zhuangzi’s followers consciously highlight the “virtuosity of Heaven”, mentioning that human virtuosity should align with the virtuosity of Heaven, as seen in phrases like “Tranquility and placidity, silence and solitude, open space and non-doing, these comprise the even level of heaven and earth, the very stuff of the Course and its intrinsic powers” and “Open and empty like space, tranquil and placid, they merge with the intrinsic powers of Heaven” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 129).

In this sense, Zhuangzi, in Chapter 5, points out that “The (Daoist)sage makes no plans, so what use would he have for the understanding? He is unsplit, so what use would he have for glue? He loses nothing, so what use would he have for the attainments of virtuosities? He is not for sale as a commodity, so what use would he have for salesmanship?” He goes on to explain that “these four are his nourishment from Heaven, the Heavenly Sustenance (天鬻), since he receives his sustenance from Heaven, what use would he have for the human?” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 50). This means that true knowledge is manifested as the Genuine Human’s heart aligned with the virtuosity of Heaven, and it is not employed through contrivance or the exploitation of “knowledge” (“makes no plans”). Therefore, this kind of “knowledge” remains unaltered and can function as an innate and natural capacity of the heart.

Lastly, by recognizing that Heaven, Earth, and all things are fundamentally one, there arises a profound admiration and praise for the unending process of creation. True knowledge is thus embodied as the knowledge that comprehends the unity of all things and the equality of their value. Zhuangzi says the following:

“For the previous while he had been chumming around as a human with the Creator of Things, and now he roams in the single vital energy of heaven and earth.”

(Ziporyn 2020, p. 60)

“Sir Worship, Sir Transport, Sir Plowshare and Sir Comealong were talking. One of them said, ‘Who can see nothingness as his own head, life as his own spine, and death as his own backside? Who knows the single body formed by life and death, existence and nonexistence? I will be his friend!’ ……Suddenly, Sir Transport took ill. Sir Worship went to see him. Sir Transport said, ‘How great is the Creator of Things, making me all tangled up like this!’ For his chin was tucked into his navel, his shoulders towered over the crown of his head, his ponytail pointed toward the sky, his five internal organs at the top of him, his thigh bones took the place of his ribs, and his yin and yang energies in chaos. But his mind was relaxed and unbothered.”

(Ziporyn 2020, p. 58)

Zhuangzi believed that the natural process of continuous creation is originally a unified whole, where the existence and destruction of all things do not increase or decrease the overall unity. The destruction of a person’s physical form signifies the emergence of a new entity. Therefore, one should not be attached to their own physical body but should understand life’s continuous cycle within the flow of the entire process of creation. In this sense, Zhuangzi uses the metaphor of the human body’s “head, spine, and backside” to illustrate that life and death are inseparable and interconnected, just like the various parts of a person’s body are interconnected. Therefore, when Sir Transport was gravely ill and near death, he still praised the great creative power of nature, saying “How great is the Creator of Things, making me all tangled up like this!”

Furthermore, Zhuangzi’s acceptance of the infinite changes in life within the unified whole is rooted in his belief that all things in the universe are of equal value. This is exemplified by his statement in Chapter 2, “For whatever we may define as a beam as opposed to a pillar, as a leper as opposed the great beauty Xishi, or whatever might be from some perspective strange, grotesque, uncanny, or deceptive, there is a course that opens them into one another, connecting them to form a oneness.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 15). Thus, it is sensible that even when Sir Transport fell ill and developed a physically unattractive appearance, he did not mind his own physical deficiencies and was still able to maintain a peaceful heart and praise the Creator.

From the above analysis, it can be seen that true knowledge is embodied in the ability to recognize the unity of all things while refraining from making judgments of value based on fixated notions of good or bad, beauty or ugliness. It encompasses the capacity to appreciate the richness and diversity of all things with an open heart.

So far, it is evident that true knowledge arises from the interaction between a Genuine Human and Heaven: through experiencing the Heavenly Way (by taking Heaven as a parent, as a master, and recognizing the unity of all things), it generates religious-like emotional experiences such as trust, reverence, and praise for Heaven. Based on these experiences, a new understanding of the meaning of life and ways of existence is established, giving rise to a meaningful world of interaction between Heaven and humanity.

For a Genuine Human, the natural world is not merely an external objective reality but carries sacred and inspiring value. The “Way of Heaven” serves as the foundational source of value for why true knowledge is “true”, and it guides the Genuine Human to understand their own existence and the meaning of life in a manner that aligns with the Way of Heaven. Therefore, the experiential understanding of the Way of Heaven, along with the corresponding way of existence, constitutes a significant aspect of true knowledge. In other words, true knowledge is deeply rooted in a sacred understanding of the natural world and is guided by the Way of Heaven. This foundational source of value not only determines the truth of knowledge but also shapes the way in which the Genuine Human understands their own existence and the meaning of life. True knowledge, therefore, is not just a matter of intellectual understanding but involves an experiential alignment with the Way of Heaven, leading to a way of existence that honors the sacredness of the natural world and the interconnectedness of all life.

3. The Harmonious Nature of “True Knowledge”—Based on Its “Worldly” Aspect to Make It “Practical”

Many scholars, in their interpretation of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, tend to overemphasize the shift from the “human” (人) to the “Heavenly” (天). This bias is also evident when discussing the concept of “true knowledge”.18 While this perspective is undeniable, as we have thoroughly argued in the second part of this article, we must not overlook that Zhuangzi also advocates for a return from “Heaven” to “human”, once again emphasizing the importance of building harmonious relationships with others—an aspect that has received relatively little attention in scholarly discussions. As seen from the previous text, a Genuine Human is able to engage with and practice the Way of Heaven, using it as the guiding principle and basis for their life activities. However, in the process of their practical application, they may sometimes experience tension with the multitude of people in the human world who possess “deluded knowledge”19 due to their attachment to the pre-established heart and worldly concerns. Therefore, most people rigidly cling to their personal beliefs and judgments about what is right and wrong. This attachment leads them to create divisions and artificial constructs based on these beliefs. These divisions and constructs become barriers that prevent them from aligning with the natural order or the “Heavenly” principles.

Nevertheless, when Zhuangzi describes the Genuine Human, he particularly emphasizes the harmonious state of “neither the Heavenly nor the human to win out over the other” (天與人不相勝)——while “Heaven” offers the ultimate source of wisdom and guidance, the Genuine Human recognizes that life is lived among others who are often caught in the web of worldly concerns and attachments. These individuals may not perceive or value the Way of Heaven, leading to inevitable friction and misunderstandings. Yet, the Genuine Human does not seek to impose the Heavenly order onto others through force or dogma. Instead, they understand that true wisdom involves the ability to navigate these tensions with grace, empathy, and adaptability. The Genuine Human remains steadfast in their alignment with “Heaven” but also flexible enough to engage with others in ways that acknowledge and respect their perspectives. In this way, the Genuine Human practices a form of coexistence that honors both the transcendent and the human aspects of life. This approach is not about winning over others to a singular viewpoint but about creating a space where diverse ways of being can coexist. By not allowing either the Heavenly or the human to dominate completely, the Genuine Human cultivates a harmony that is inclusive of both the sacred and the mundane. This harmony is not static but evolves through continuous interaction, reflection, and adjustment. It is a living balance that sustains both the individual’s inner alignment with “Heaven” and their outer relationships with the world. He says the following:

“Thus their liking of something was a oneness with it and their disliking of something was also a oneness with it; what they liked and what they disliked, their liking and their disliking, were all the oneness. Their oneness was oneness, and their non-oneness was also oneness. In their oneness, they were followers of the Heavenly. In their non-oneness, they were followers of the human. This is what it is for neither the Heavenly nor the human to win out over the other. And that is what I call the Genuine-Human.”

(Ziporyn 2020, p. 55)

In Zhuangzi’s view, “not being followers of the Heavenly” is the situation for most people in the world. Because people cling to their pre-established hearts, they uphold their own distinctions and judgments of right and wrong. This attachment results in creating divisions and contrivances that hinder their alignment with Heaven. As a result, there is a sense of alienation and estrangement between the Genuine Human and ordinary people.

However, for a Genuine Human, even though “Heaven” provides a source of value and meaning in their life (“being followers of the Heavenly”), interacting with other sentient beings who do not align with Heaven (“being followers of the human”) is still inescapable. In this case, they can respond appropriately to this disharmony and eventually embrace a harmonious coexistence. This way of existence, where there is harmony between the transcendent and the mundane, is termed “neither the Heavenly nor the human to win out over the other”.

Therefore, in the last chapter “The Whole World”, the fundamental spirit of Zhuangzi’s philosophy is nicely summarized as “In his aloneness he came and went, joined only by heaven and earth and the purest kernels of imponderable spirit, but still never arrogantly separated himself off from the creatures of the world, for he reprimanded none of their views of right and wrong, and thus was able to get along with worldly conventions.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 272). This is also in line with the concept of the well-rounded state of a Genuine Human. In contrast to the harmonious state of true knowledge, Zhuangzi refers to those who solely follow the Heavenly Way as “freakish people” (畸人). By contrasting these terms, we can further discern the characteristics of true knowledge.

In a parable from the chapter “The Great Source as Teacher”, two friends of Sir Berrydoor sang together while composing music and plucking the zither by his unburied corpse after his death. They had transcended life and death and were no longer bound by worldly conventions. Zhuangzi believed that these two individuals had realized the essential truth of the unity of all things, allowing them to happily celebrate the return of life to nature as a unified whole; hence, they can maintain a carefree and liberated perspective, not distinguishing between the precedence of life and death.20

However, Zhuangzi ultimately categorized them as “freakish people” (“They are freakish to man but normal to Heaven”21), implying that while they may align with the Heavenly, their detachment from society has led them too far. However, it must be acknowledged that Zhuangzi emphasizes the separation between individuals and society, advocating for the liberation of the self from the constraints of social roles, the rejection of a utilitarian approach to nature, and the restoration of nature to its intrinsic state. He also encourages us to view human existence from the perspective of Heaven, thereby establishing a unique mode of existence. This transcendence, much like the freakish people’s attitude toward life and death, is indeed something Zhuangzi endorses. In this sense, Zhuangzi does, to some extent, appreciate freakish people. However, freakish people are not ideal figures in Zhuangzi’s philosophy. Zhuangzi’s distinction between “freakish people” and the “Genuine Human” suggests that while these individuals may closely follow the Way of Heaven, their detachment from societal norms and human conventions has rendered them peculiar or abnormal from the perspective of ordinary people. Consequently, they are unable to achieve a harmonious and unrestricted interaction with the human world. They do not achieve the integration and harmony between the “inside” (方內) and “outside” (方外) realms of existence.

In contrast, in another passage from the same chapter, Zhuangzi praises Mr. Mengsun, who is described as an ideal character. After his mother’s death, Mr. Mengsun, while having realized the unity of all things and understanding that transformations have no ultimate end, could align himself with the natural flow of events and thus “be a follower of the Heavenly” (“enter into the oneness of the clear sky, of empty Heaven”). However, he still exhibited the same mourning and grieving as ordinary people when facing death (“Others cry, so he cries too”). Therefore, he could empathize with and be compatible with those who are unable to become “followers of the Heavenly” and therefore remain attached to life and death, without violating the conventions of worldly mourning rites.

In this context, it is important to emphasize that the difference between a Genuine Human and freakish people can be understood as follows: a Genuine Human can both be a follower of the heavenly and a follower of the human, while freakish people can only be followers of the Heavenly. Seemingly, the distinction between the knowledge of “freakish people” and the “true knowledge” of a Genuine Human does not primarily lie in their understanding of the “Way of Heaven” and the fundamental comprehension of life’s existence. Instead, it manifests in their essential differences in dealing with relationships with “the human”, highlighting how they approach and interact with others.

However, as mentioned above, Zhuangzi explicitly states that Heaven and humans are fundamentally not separate: “how could I know whether what I call the Heavenly is not really the human? How could I know whether what I call the human is not really the Heavenly?” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 53). In fact, if one truly reaches an utmost understanding of the Way of Heaven, it naturally leads to harmony in relationships with the human. For instance, in Chapter 5, Zhuangzi tells the story of the Toeless of Unk Mountain, an ex-convict from the state of Lu who had suffered the amputation of his feet and sought advice from Confucius on how to make amends for his past wrongdoings. Confucius rejected him at the door. In response, the Toeless of Unk Mountain, serving as Zhuangzi’s spokesperson, expressed his feelings, saying, “Heaven covers all things. Earth supports all things. I used to think that you, sir, were just like heaven and earth—I never imagined you would instead say something like this!” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 48). From this, it is evident that Zhuangzi believed that if a person genuinely comprehends the boundless compassion and open-mindedness of Heaven and Earth that envelops all things, they can naturally embrace and accommodate a wide range of people, even those labeled as “evil” (like the Toeless of Unk Mountain).

This indicates that the “true knowledge” achieved through profoundly understanding the Way of Heaven already includes the aspect of “being followers of the human”, encompassing universal moral sentiments characterized by boundless compassion. But how is this possible? Specifically, a Genuine Human with true knowledge can sympathetically understand that every sentient being in the human world possesses the pre-established heart and tends to attach to it, resulting in being encircled by their own “petty” self and unable to unite with the “great” universe or Heaven. This is the exact fact of the human world, which cannot be denied and is normally unchangeable without self-cultivation.

In reality, achieving the complete acceptance and compassionate understanding of such an exact fact of existence is not easy, and Zhuangzi acknowledges this by elevating the capacity to “understand what is unavoidable and find peace in it as his own fate” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 47) to the highest level of virtuosity.22 That is to say, the condition of being encircled by one’s own limited perspective is seen as a natural, though unfortunate, aspect of the human condition. Zhuangzi recognizes that achieving a state of the complete acceptance and compassionate understanding of this fact is no easy task. It requires a level of wisdom and emotional maturity that allows one to see the inevitability of these limitations in others and oneself and to respond not with frustration or despair but with peace and acceptance. Zhuangzi elevates this capacity to the highest level of virtuosity, which is about embracing this fact with a deep, compassionate understanding.23 It is the wisdom to recognize that these limitations are an inescapable part of the human experience and to find tranquility within that understanding. The Genuine Human, in achieving this state, transcends the struggle against the inevitable and instead harmonizes with it. This deep acceptance transforms what could be a source of friction and entanglement into a source of peace.

In this sense, the Genuine Human not only practices the Way of Heaven through dedicated cultivation but also attains a compassionate understanding of the exact facts of the human world mentioned above. In this way, true knowledge becomes a “practical” form of knowledge, demonstrated through actions that are considered appropriately flexible:

“Thus the Sage does not proceed from any one of these alone but instead lets them all bask in the broad daylight of Heaven. That is also a way of going along with the rightness of each ‘this,’ going along with ‘thisness’ itself.”

(Ziporyn 2020, p. 14)

“Once a monkey trainer was distributing chestnuts. He said, ‘I’ll give you three in the morning and four in the evening.’ The monkeys were furious. ‘Well, then,’ he said, ‘I’ll give you four in the morning and three in the evening.’ The monkeys were delighted. This change brought them no loss either in name or in fact, but in one case it brought anger and in another delight. He just went along with the ‘thisness,’ relying on the rightness of the present ‘this.’ Thus the Sage uses various rights and wrongs to harmonize with others, and yet remains at rest in the middle of Heaven the Potter’s Wheel. This is called Walking Two Roads.”

(Ziporyn 2020, pp. 15–16)

Regarding the first paragraph, Ziporyn makes a note here: “‘Or, if we take the antecedent zhi to carry over all this way as the referent of the pronoun, Thus the Sage does not follow it anywhere but instead simply basks it in the broad daylight of Heaven,’ where ‘it’ is the faculty of conscious knowing or understanding. On this reading, the sage does not take conscious knowledge and its conscious values as his teacher or guide, nor sage does not take conscious knowledge and its conscious values as his teacher or guide, nor does he eliminate its function of judging and preferring. Instead, he allows it to function normally, but also sees it as simply a natural function in the world, a function of judgment that has just been shown to always ramify into alternate judgments and positions precisely by virtue of the unavoidable structure of this/not-this (shi/fei) involved in any judgment” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 24)24.

In this view, the Sage’s wisdom lies in the ability to recognize that judgments, preferences, and distinctions (which emerge from conscious knowing or the pre-established heart) are simply part of the world’s flux. The Sage does not cling to any one judgment as final or absolute but remains open to the inevitable plurality of interpretations and perspectives that result from the natural unfolding of the world. This is because any act of judgment, by virtue of the distinction-making process itself (shi/fei), inherently generates opposition and multiplicity—this/not-this, right/wrong. The Sage, then, resides in a space where these dualities are understood as contingent rather than definitive.

Thus, rather than acting as a “guide” or “teacher”, the pre-established heart or conscious knowledge is treated more like a tool, something that can function within the larger unfolding of reality without dominating the Sage’s sense of being or acting. The Sage allows conscious knowledge to carry out its work but does not rely on it exclusively or become confined by it. This echoes Zhuangzi’s broader philosophical stance that stresses flexibility, openness to change, and a refusal to adhere rigidly to fixed perspectives.

From this, it is clear that a true Dao practitioner (Genuine Human) does not become entangled in the disputes of right and wrong but instead “remains at rest in the middle of Heaven’s Potter’s Wheel.” (休乎天鈞). In practice, they do not adhere to or completely transcend the realm of right and wrong but, through their great virtuosity, navigate and harmonize with the world’s distinctions and judgments.25 While remaining steadfast in their commitment to the Way of Heaven, they also navigates the complexities of diverse social contexts with adaptability and sensitivity. This means that they need to thoughtfully tailor their approach to different situations and individuals. This balance between steadfastness and adaptability allows Dao practitioners to maintain a commitment to the Heavenly Way without rigidly applying it in every situation. They do not impose uniformity but instead thoughtfully tailor their approach to the specific needs and conditions they encounter. This is a crucial aspect of Daoist wisdom, emphasizing the importance of attuning oneself not only to the cosmological Way but also to the intricate diversity of human interactions and social contexts.

In essence, the Genuine Human demonstrates a deep sensitivity to the world’s distinctions while remaining fundamentally unbound by them, navigating with virtuosic ease that reflects both knowledge and the wisdom to let go of fixed knowledge when necessary. This dynamic interplay of engagement and detachment is key to their mastery of the Way. It involves creatively expressing their values in ways that resonate with others’ perspectives and experiences, thereby fostering mutual understanding and dialog, as in the case of the monkey trainer, where “going along with ‘thisness’” meant that “the monkeys were delighted”.

In a word, the Genuine Human seeks to bridge gaps between their own transcendent principles and the practical realities of human interactions. They strive to find common ground with others, recognizing that effective communication and collaboration often require aligning their principles with the needs and viewpoints of those around them. This is not about diluting or compromising their core beliefs, but rather about engaging with others in a manner that maintains integrity while also being receptive to differing perspectives. In this process, the Genuine Human embodies the Daoist ideal of harmonious interaction, where their actions are guided by both an unwavering commitment to the Way of Heaven and a pragmatic understanding of human diversity. They navigate this balance with skill and empathy, ensuring that their adherence to higher principles enriches rather than isolates them from the broader world. This approach allows them to effectively integrate their spiritual values with the practical demands of daily life, fostering harmony and deeper connections across varied contexts. This will result in “harmony” with others and finally reveals that Zhuangzian virtuosity “means the practice of forming new harmonies” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 50) through practicing the ideal of “neither the Heavenly nor the human to win out over the other”.

In summary, the “genuine” aspect of true knowledge, achieved through practicing the Way of Heaven, must lead to an appreciation of the “human way” to fully manifest “practical” utility. This reveals a profound insight into the unavoidable fact of the human world and fosters sincere empathy. In other words, the “true” significance within “true knowledge” not only signifies alignment with the “Way of Heaven” and thus has an transcendental aspect but also embodies an awareness and acceptance of the realities of the human world, thereby manifesting its practical characteristics. Hence, the Genuine Human exemplifies a path where the transcendent and the everyday are not at odds but rather interwoven into a rich tapestry of existence. The ability to “neither let the Heavenly nor the human win out over the other” is not a compromise but a sophisticated way of living that allows for the fullest expression of both spiritual insight and human connection.

4. Conclusions

In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, “true knowledge” may encompass various meanings explored by previous scholars. However, at a more fundamental level, it reflects the relationship between the human and Heaven. Therefore, this paper argues that we should grasp this fundamental dimension to explore the meaning of true knowledge, thus avoiding the limitations that previous scholars’ interpretations might have. In the context of “there can be ‘a Genuine Understanding’ only after there is such a thing as someone who is himself genuine even while being human”, we have elucidated the meaning of true knowledge. Specifically, based on the emotional experiences of trust, reverence, and praise towards “Heaven”, the Genuine Human establishes a firm belief in the “Way of Heaven”.26 On this basis, a fresh understanding of the meaning of life and a new way of existence in harmony with the Way of Heaven can be achieved. Consequently, the “Way of Heaven” serves as the foundation upon which true knowledge is established, revealing its transcendental characteristic. On the other hand, true knowledge possessed by the Genuine Human manifests as profound insight and sincere empathy for the actual facts of the human world. This leads to appropriately flexible actions in specific circumstances, thus revealing its practical utility and ethical purpose in harmony.

The essence of true knowledge in Zhuangzi’s philosophy encompasses these two aspects seamlessly, extending into the dimensions of both “Heaven” and “human”. This also demonstrates the fundamental spirit of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, which integrates both transcendence and harmony.