Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Veneration of Sacred Threads in Indian Culture and Its Influence on Buddhism
At one time, six groups of monks were wearing ear ornaments, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. … The six groups of monks were enlarging their ear holes with rings made of palm leaves or lead and tin, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wrapped their ears, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They made belts of lead and tin, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore necklaces, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore arm and leg bracelets, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore finger rings, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They used five-colored threads to tie around their armpits and waists, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”.時六群比丘著耳鐺,佛言:“不應爾”。……六群比丘以多羅葉、若鉛錫作環張耳孔令大,佛言:“不應爾”。彼六群比丘纏裹耳,佛言:“不應爾”。彼作鉛錫腰帶,佛言:“不應爾”。彼著頸瓔,佛言:“不應爾”。彼著臂脚玔,佛言:“不應爾”。彼著指環,佛言:“不應爾”。 彼用五色綖絡腋繫腰臂,佛言:“不應爾”。(Taisho Tripitaka T. 22, No. 1428, p. 946)
The six groups of monks, while begging for food, saw Brahmins adorned with fragrant flowers and wearing five-colored threads on their arms. They received various food items and, after eating, their appearance was radiant when they left the house. The six groups of monks said to each other, “Nanda, Upananda! This is a good method, we should do the same”. So, they wore five-colored threads on their arms the next day and entered the city to beg for food. The Brahmins saw them and scornfully said, “I bow down now”. The six groups mocked, elaborating as before. Eventually, the monks reported this to the Buddha, who thought, “If monks wear five-colored threads on their arms, there will be such faults. Therefore, monks should not wear five-colored threads on their arms. If they do, they commit a pārājika offense”.六眾乞食見諸婆羅門,以妙香花莊嚴形體,將五色線繫之於臂,得諸餅食既飽食已,形貌充溢從舍而出。六眾相謂:“難陀、鄔波難陀!是好方便,我等可為”。便於他日以五色線繫於臂上,入城乞食。諸婆羅門等見,生輕賤云:“我今跪拜”。六眾譏弄,廣說同前,乃至諸苾芻白佛。佛作是念:“若諸苾芻以五色線繫臂有斯過失,由是苾芻不應以五色線繫臂。若有繫者得越法罪”。(Taisho Tripitaka T. 24, No. 1451, p. 208)
The six groups of monks wore threads around their wrists, and the laypeople criticized them, saying, “These monks claim to be virtuous and good, yet they wear multicolored threads on their wrists like kings or ministers”. This matter was reported to the Buddha, who said, “From now on, monks are not permitted to wear multicolored threads on their wrists. Those who do so commit a minor offense (dukkaṭa)”. The six groups of monks also wore threads under their armpits, and the laypeople criticized them, saying, “These monks claim to be virtuous and good, yet they wear threads under their armpits like Brāhmaṇas”. This matter was reported to the Buddha, who said, “From now on, monks are not permitted to wear threads under their armpits. Those who do so commit a minor offense (dukkaṭa)”.六群比丘腕上繫縷,諸居士呵責言:“諸比丘自言善好有德。以雜色縷繫腕上,如王、如大臣”。是事白佛,佛言:“從今不聽以雜色縷繫腕上。繫者,突吉羅”。六群比丘縷絡腋,諸居士呵責言:“諸比丘自言善好有德。以縷絡腋如婆羅門”。是事白佛,佛言:“從今不聽比丘以縷絡腋。絡腋者,突吉羅”。(Taisho Tripitaka T. 23, No. 1435, p. 267)
Since the Buddha did not permit the wearing of threads on the arm, there was a time when a monk, suffering from an illness, went to a physician and asked, “Sir, I am ill. Please prescribe a remedy for me”. The physician replied, “Venerable one, take a five-colored thread, recite a spell over it, and tie it around your arm. This will surely cure you”. The monk responded, “The Blessed One does not allow this”. The physician said, “Your master is compassionate by nature. There should be no doubt that he would permit this for the sake of illness”. The monks reported this to the Buddha, who said, “I now allow monks to wear threads for the sake of illness, if instructed by a physician, without committing an offense”. When monks tied the thread around the front of their right elbow7, they were ridiculed, so the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They then tied it behind their right elbow, but the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They tied it in front of their left elbow, and again the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. Finally, they tied it behind their left elbow, and the Buddha approved. The monks were cured, and they discarded the thread wherever they pleased. Non-human beings saw this and were offended, saying, “Venerable one, you tied this thread and recited a spell using our names to cure your illness, and now you treat it with contempt”. The monks reported this to the Buddha, who said, “You should not discard the thread just anywhere. If your illness is not yet cured, you may tie it to the corner of your robe. Once you are completely healed, you may place it in a crack in the wall or in a pillar as you see fit”.佛既不許繫臂線者,時有苾芻身嬰患苦,詣醫人處問言:“賢首!我身有疾幸為處方”。答言:“聖者!取五色線呪之繫臂,必得除愈”。報曰:“世尊不聽”。彼言:“仁之大師慈悲為本,病緣開許理所不疑”。時諸苾芻白佛,佛言:“我今聽諸苾芻為病因緣醫人教者,繫線無犯”。佛許以線繫臂,苾芻安在右臂肘前,還有譏過,佛言:“不應爾”。遂安肘後,佛言:“不應”。復繫左手肘前,佛言:“不應,當安左手肘後”。苾芻由此遂便病愈,以所繫線隨處棄擲。非人見之皆起嫌賤,報言:“聖者!由其線結繫我名字,緣此呪故令得病除,今生輕慢”。苾芻白佛,佛言:“不應隨處棄擲,若其身病未得可者,繫之衣角。如善平復,可於牆柱隙中隨意安置”。(Taisho Tripitaka T. 24, No. 1451, p. 209)
3. The Number and Colors of Threads in the Buddhist “Knotted Thread”
According to Volume Two of Qiānyǎn Qiānbì Guānshìyīn Púsà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng 《千眼千臂觀世音菩薩陀羅尼神呪經》, “If a virtuous man or woman is afflicted by demons, they should use a white thread as a charm cord, tying one knot for each recitation of the spell, making forty-nine knots in total. Tying it around their throat will immediately cure their illness (若有善男子善女人為鬼魅所著,以白縷為呪索,一遍一結,如是四十九結,繫其咽下,其病即除; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1057a, p. 89)”.
According to Volume One of Qī Fó Bā Púsà Suǒ Shuō Dà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng 《七佛八菩薩所說大陀羅尼神呪經》, “Recite the spell three times, using a yellow thread to make fourteen knots, one knot per recitation, and tie it around the neck. The power of this dharani can subdue all obstacles, move mountains, stop rivers, dry up great seas, and crush mountains into dust (誦呪三遍,黃色縷結作十四結,一遍一結繫項。此陀羅尼力悉能摧伏,移山斷流、乾竭大海,摧碎諸山猶如微塵; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332, p. 536)”.
Guānzìzài Púsà Suíxīn Zhòu Jīng 《觀自在菩薩隨心呪經》 mentions, “Take a blue thread, recite the spell once for each knot, making seven knots. Tie it below the navel, around the waist, to cure hemorrhoids and dysentery, and around the neck to cure all illnesses. If someone is poisoned, recite the spell over the thread, and they will recover (又法取青綖,呪一遍一結,如是七結,繫臍下繞腰衬身,除痔病、下痢病,繫項除一切病,人得毒藥呪之亦差; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1103a, p. 462)”.
Volume Four of Dà Jíyì Shén Zhòu Jīng 《大吉義神呪經》 advises the following: “Recite this great knotting spell sutra, using a red thread to make a hundred knots, and offer it with incense to the deities. The deities will gather in one place to preach the Dharma (當誦讀是大結呪界經,以赤線繫作百結,以香供養諸天,諸天等當集在一處為其說法; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1335, p. 580)”.
The Xīfāng Tuóluóní Zàng Zhōng Jīngāng Zú Āmìlǐduō Jūnzhālì Fǎ 《西方陀羅尼藏中金剛族阿蜜哩多軍吒利法》 suggests the following: “To expel all harmful spirits, use a black thread, recite the spell for each knot, making twenty-one knots in total. Burn fragrant incense and pass the thread through the smoke, then tie it around the head. Recite the spell into the ear of the sick person. If this doesn’t work, use a vajra pestle to strike the ground, and the spirit will be crushed, curing the person (欲除一切荼枳儞鬼等,黑綖一呪一結滿二十一遍,取安悉香燒薰綖,將繫頭上,向病人耳中誦呪。如不可者,取金剛杵向地杵,其鬼即惱碎,其人病即差; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1212, p. 57)”.
“Recite the spell three times, using threads of two colors, yellow and white, to make three knots and tie them around the neck (誦呪三遍,縷黃白二色結作三結,繫項)”.“Recite the spell three times, using threads of three colors, yellow, red, and green, to make twenty-one knots. First, tie them around the feet, then the waist, and finally the hands (誦呪三遍,三色縷黃赤綠,作二十一結,先繫脚、後繫腰、却繫手)”.“Recite the spell five times, using threads of six colors to make five knots and tie them around the painful area (誦呪五遍,六色縷結作五結,痛處繫)”.“Recite the spell three times. Use threads of eight colors to make four knots, and tie them around both feet (誦呪三遍,縷八色結作四結,繫兩脚)”.(Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332, pp. 546, 557, 539, 541)
“If one wishes to see all ghosts, spirits, yakshas, deities, and rakshasas, anoint the eyes with oil, burn incense to worship the Four Great Heavenly Kings, and recite this boundary spell daily using four-colored threads to make four knots and tie them on the top of the head to achieve this vision (若欲見一切鬼神夜叉提婆利沙,油塗已眼,燒香供養四大天王,日日誦念此結界經,以四色線結作四結,繫著頂上,得如意見)”.“If one desires to win in battle, burn incense and recite the spell seven times, using seven-colored threads to make seven knots and tie them at the top of the banner. Should any weapons approach, they will naturally fall away without causing harm (若欲鬪戰求勝敵者,應七遍燒香,以七色綖結為七結,七遍誦呪,當應以此結繫幢頭。設有刀箭欲來向身,自然墮落終不傷害)”.“Using ten-colored threads, pass them through the smoke of various burning incenses seven times, recite the sutra, and tie the threads to make seven knots (以十色線七過,燒種種香七遍,誦經繫線作七結)”.(Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1335, pp. 580, 579, 580)
In Volume Fourteen of Zhōng Āhán Jīng 《中阿含經》, “Ananda, at that time, the great king produced a jewel. This jewel was naturally clear and pure, not man-made, with eight facets and free of impurities, excellently polished, and strung with a five-colored thread: blue, yellow, red, white, and black (阿難!時,大天王而生珠寶,彼珠寶者,明淨自然,無有造者,八楞無垢,極好磨治,貫以五色繩,青、黃、赤、白、黑; Taisho Tripitaka T. 1, No. 26, p. 512)”.
In Volume One of Móhē Móyē Jīng 《摩訶摩耶經》, “At that time, upon hearing these words, the World Honored One emitted a five-colored light—blue, yellow, red, white, and ruby red—which illuminated the entire Jambudvipa (爾時,世尊聞此語已,而便放於五色光明——青、黃、赤、白、頗梨紅色——其光遍照閻浮提內; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 383, p. 1008)”.
In Fó Shuō Xūmótí Púsà Jīng 《佛說須摩提菩薩經》, “The Buddha immediately smiled, and five colors—blue, red, yellow, white, and green—emanated from his mouth, emitting great light that illuminated countless Buddha lands in all directions (佛尋欣笑,五色——青、赤、黃、白、綠——光從口而出,甚大光明,普照十方無數佛國; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 335, p. 81)”.
4. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | In the records of Shǐjì (The Grand Historian史記), Volume 24, the following is mentioned: “The five colors are clear and not confused; the eight winds follow the musical pitches and are not out of tune; the hundred degrees are accurate and constant (五色成文而不亂,八風從律而不奸,百度得數而有常)”. The Jíjiě (集解) commentary quotes Zheng Xuan’s annotation: “The five colors correspond to the five elements, the eight winds follow the musical pitches and arrive in accordance with the seasons, and the hundred degrees correspond to the hundred divisions of time, indicating that the sun, moon, and day and night do not lose their proper order (五色五行也,八風從律應節至也,百度百刻也,言日月晝夜不失正也)”. (Sima 1959, pp. 1211–13). |
2 | Cao Yingjie mentioned that “The expression of “five colors” in Buddhist scriptures is flexible. Generally, it does not only limit to blue, red, yellow, white, and black as in Chinese traditions but includes more colors without specific enumeration; “five colors” in Buddhist usage is more of a descriptive term rather than a concept with a fixed meaning. The extensive use of “five colors” may have been influenced by Chinese conventions”. (Cao 2018, p. 151). |
3 | Xia Guangxing and Yan Weiwei, in their article Mìjiào Chuánchí Yǔ Sòngdài Mínjiān Wǔsè Xiàn Xísú de Xíngchéng Yǔ Fāzhǎn 密教傳持與宋代民間五色線習俗的形成與發展, pointed out that “The five-color thread in the Great Compassion Mantra includes red, blue, yellow, white, and black, influenced by traditional Chinese culture. Each color is associated with a protective Buddha and a corresponding direction, showing that the five-color thread originated from the five colors of the directions”. The article notes that Dà Pílúzhēnà Chéng Fó Jīng Shū《大毘盧遮那成佛經疏》combines the five-color thread with the five Buddhas: “For making the thread, choose fine silk, wash it with fragrant water until very clean. Let pure maidens twist it. Use five true words of the five Buddhas to hold each color… The colors are: Vairocana Buddha holds white, Ratnaketu holds red, Saṃkusumitarāja holds yellow, Amitabha holds green, and Divyadundubhimega-nirghoṣa holds black (凡作綖,當擇上好細具縷,香水洗之極令清淨,令潔淨童女右合之。合五色縷,當用五如來真言各持一色……五如來色者,謂大日佛加持白色、寶幢持赤色、花開敷持黃色、無量壽持緣色、鼓音佛持黑色; Taisho Tripitaka T. 39, No. 1796, p. 627)”. In this sutra, the five Buddhas have specific directional attributes: Vairocana in the center, Ratnaketu in the east, Saṃkusumitarāja in the south, Amitabha in the west and Divyadundubhimega-nirghoṣa in the north (第一東方寶幢佛,第二南方開敷花王佛,第三西方阿彌陀佛,第四北方鼓音佛; Taisho Tripitaka T. 39, No. 1796, p. 751). Xia and Yan believe that each color of the five-color thread corresponds to a protective Buddha and a direction, influenced by Chinese five-direction and five-color concepts. However, the sutra’s five-color (center white, east red, south yellow, west green, north black) differs from the Chinese traditional (center yellow, east blue, west white, south red, north black). Whether the five-color thread was influenced by Chinese culture is debatable (Xia and Yan 2015). |
4 | Upanayana, in The Sanskrit English Dictionary, is detailed as “That ceremony in which a Guru draws a boy towards himself and initiates him into one of the three twice-born classes (one of the twelve Saṃskāras or purificatory rites [prescribed in the Dharma-sūtras and explained in the Gṛihya-sūtras], during which the boy is invested with the sacred thread [different for the three castes] and thus endowed with a second or spiritual birth and qualified to learn the Veda by heart; a Brāhman is initiated in the eighth year [or seventh according to Hiranyakeśin; or eighth from conception, according to Śānkhāyana &c.], a Kshatriya in the eleventh, a Vaiśya in the twelfth; but the term could be delayed)”. (Williams 1899, p. 201). |
5 | This story is quoted from Rajaram Narayan Saletore’s book Indian Witchcraft (Saletore 1981, pp. 117–18). In this book, there is another story that involves thread used for metamorphosis magic: “According to Somadeva, was employed for metamorphosis, viz, for changing men into animals or birds as shown in his legend of the minister Bhimaparakrama.…While the minister was asleep under a banyan tree, she fastened a thread round his neck and when he woke up he had become peacock; although he retained his intelligence. He was sold to the principal warder of a king of the Bhillas, who made him over to his wife. She made a pet of this peacock and unloosened that string round its neck and he regained his original shape. This rakhi has a distinct connection with the magic circle (mandala)”. (Saletore 1981, p. 78). |
6 | The evolution of Buddhism’s stance on divination exemplifies adaptation. When the Buddha founded Buddhism, he established precepts to distinguish it from non-Buddhist teachings and to preserve the purity of the monastic community, explicitly prohibiting monks from engaging in divination. These precepts grouped divination with other improper livelihood practices, such as incantations and talismans, categorizing them as minor offenses like pācittiya or dukkaṭa, and were not overly stringent. Following the Buddha’s parinirvana, Buddhism underwent schisms, leading to the emergence of different sects, each adopting varied attitudes toward divination. The Dharmaguptaka school maintained the early Buddhist perspective on divination. In contrast, the Mahīśāsaka school and the Theravāda tradition upheld stringent opposition to such practices. The Mahāsāṃghika school, particularly some of its later branches, adopted a more lenient stance. Meanwhile, the Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda schools had not fully developed their positions on divination, though they generally trended toward greater tolerance. For a detailed discussion on the shift in Buddhism’s attitude toward divination, refer to the articles by Yang and Christoph (Yang and Christoph 2020; Yang and Puhui 2022; Yang 2023). |
7 | Buddha forbade his disciples from wearing five-colored silk on their right elbows, possibly to differentiate Buddhist practices from common customs in India at that time, thereby emphasizing the distinctiveness of Buddhism. In ancient India, it was customary to wear amulets on the right arm for protection against evil. As J. Gonda mentions, “In a text intended to drive away powers of evil or to discover, by means of a herb, sorcerers (AV. 4, 20), the thousand-eyed god (according to the Indian commentary, Indra) is expected to “set it on my right fore-arm” (rather than “in my right hand”), the following words being “with it I see everyone” (st. 5). “It must be an amulet (cf. Kauśika-Sūtra, 28, 7) made of a plant called’Ever-flowering’”, which obviously enables the man who wears it on his right arm to detect the evil-doers”. (Gonda 1972, p. 10). |
8 | Buddhist attire also absorbed the sacred thread tradition of ancient India. For instance, in volume 120 of Dà Bǎojī Jīng《大寶積經》, it is mentioned that “At that time, the Sage Vyāsa and his peers gradually approached the Buddha, saw the majestic and dignified arhats, and, feeling deeply respectful, bowed with bent bodies and lowered eyes. The sages each had disheveled hair, wore a white thread, had a dark complexion, yellow-green eyes, dry hair, carried a trident staff, and had an unremarkable appearance. Some walked in the sky, some talked about worldly texts (爾時廣博仙人與其同類漸至佛所,覩諸羅漢威德尊嚴,內懷傾悚曲躬低視。各結散發,身佩白繩,顏容黑暗,兩目黃綠,頭髮枯燥,執三拒木,身形卑陋。或行虛空,或談俗典; Taisho Tripitaka T. 11, No. 310, p. 679)”. This shows that wearing a white thread was a custom of the Brahmin sages. Furthermore, in Bùkōng Juànsuǒ Shénzhòu Xīnjīng 《不空羂索神呪心經》 translated by Xuanzang, it is mentioned that “We pay homage to the one who abides in the Pure Land and possesses great compassion, wearing a white auspicious thread, adorned with many precious necklaces, crowned with a garland and jeweled crown. In the middle of the crown, at the top, there is an image of the omniscient one (稽首住淨土具大悲者,身佩白吉祥縷,頸帶眾寶瓔珞,首冠花鬘寶冠,於寶冠中當於頂上有一切智像; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1094, p. 404)”. This indicates that Buddhism, in its descriptions of bodhisattva attire, also absorbed Brahmin customs. |
9 | Omura Seiga also noticed the relationship between Buddhist thread-tying methods and traditional Indian sacred thread worship. He mentioned, “In The Sutra of Spells for Seasonal Diseases there is a spell that says to tie threads around the head. This thread-tying is the origin of the Vajra thread in later Esoteric Buddhism, first appearing in this sutra. It is similar to the Brahmin “sacred thread” in origin” (Omura 2013, p. 44). |
10 | Among these four manifest colors, white is considered the most superior. Ābídámó Dà Pípóshā Lùn states, ““Which among the four manifest colors is the most superior”? The venerable Vasumitra responded, “White is the most superior because it is universally regarded as auspicious. Just as the east is considered the most superior among the four directions for its auspiciousness, white is similarly regarded”. The great sage explained, “White can keep the mind clear and pure, avoiding lethargy or sleepiness. It can also sustain the body, making it the most superior color”. (問四顯色中何者最勝?尊者世友作如是說白色最勝,世共說此是吉祥故,如四方中東方最勝是吉祥故,白色亦爾;大德說曰緣白色時令心明淨,以不隨順惛沈睡眠,能任持身故最為勝; Taisho Tripitaka T. 27, No. 1545, p. 440)”. |
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Yang, G. Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations. Religions 2024, 15, 906. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080906
Yang G. Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations. Religions. 2024; 15(8):906. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080906
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Gang. 2024. "Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations" Religions 15, no. 8: 906. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080906
APA StyleYang, G. (2024). Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations. Religions, 15(8), 906. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080906