Shared Memory and History: The Abrahamic Legacy in Medieval Judaeo-Arabic Poetry from the Cairo Genizah

Abstract

The Cairo Genizah collections provide scholars with a profound insight into Jewish culture, history, and the deeply intertwined relationships between Jews, Muslims, and Christians. Among these treasures are often overlooked Arabic poetic fragments from the eleventh to fifteenth centuries, which illuminate the shared Abrahamic legacy. This paper explores mainly two unpublished poetic fragments written in Judaeo-Arabic (Arabic in Hebrew script), analyzing how they reflect a shared Jewish–Muslim cultural memory and history, particularly through the reverence for Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and other key figures central to both traditions across the medieval Mediterranean and Middle East. By situating these poetic voices within broader historical and cultural contexts, this study underscores the role of poetry in reflecting sociocultural and historical dimensions while fostering cross-cultural and religious coexistence. It demonstrates how poetry acts as a bridge between religion, history, and culture by revealing the shared Abrahamic heritage of Jews and Muslims within two Arabic poetic fragments from the Cairo Genizah.

1. Introduction

The Genizah has preserved numerous fragments that have fundamentally reshaped scholarly comprehension of Jewish culture and history. The “Cairo Genizah” is a combination of the Hebrew word “genizah” (גניזה), meaning “storehouse” or “treasure”, and the place where it was discovered in the Ben Ezra Synagogue (Jefferson 2022, pp. xi–xii, 128–42; Reif 2002) in Old Cairo (al-Fusṭāṭ), which was established by ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ (d. 43AH/664 AD) after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 19–21/639–642 (Baning 2018; Sheehan 2010, pp. 79–96).

The Cairo Genizah holds abundant documentary resources and thousands of fragments, which became particularly important for historical research due to its vast collection of records dating back to the Fatimid period (969–1171) and beyond. Although the Genizah was mainly examined within Jewish studies, its documents are an equally essential source for studying Islamic history and the sociocultural, intellectual, and economic history of the premodern Middle East and Mediterranean (Jefferson 2022, pp. xi–xii, 128–42; Reif 2002; Cohen 2006; Goitein 1955).

Building on the monumental work of Shelomo Goitein (1967–1993, vol. 1–6) scholars began delving into the social and economic history of Jews in particular, and the Middle East and the Mediterranean in general, through the valuable documents in the Cairo Genizah (Ackerman-Lieberman 2014; Goitein and Friedman 2007; Khan 1993; Cohen 1980; Stillman 1976, pp. 579–89; Udovitch 1970). A few studies have highlighted the significance of Arabic literature within the Cairo Genizah, albeit without conducting a historical examination of the Arabic poetic corpus (Langermann 1996; Steinschneider 1900).

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Hartwig Hirschfeld wrote two articles about some Arabic poetry in the Cairo Genizah (Hirschfeld 1903, 1905). Mohamed Ahmed (2018) pioneered the research on the importance of the Genizah’s Arabic poetry by initiating a survey on Arabic poetry fragments in the Cairo Genizah. Other scholars have dedicated their efforts to studying Hebrew poetry, resulting in comprehensive collections collated in both books and websites. For example, “The Ezra Fleischer Genizah Research Project for Hebrew Poetry” has cataloged over 88,000 titles of Hebrew poems—liturgical, known as piyyutim, and secular (Davidson 1970, 2017).

While many early piyyutim, a term originating from the Greek word poiēsis meaning the act of creation or making, have been preserved in prayer books, the study of medieval Hebrew poetry, in general, flourished after the discovery of tens of thousands of poetic fragments in the Cairo Genizah. The piyyutim were initially integrated into the fabric of statutory prayers, intricately interwoven into the liturgical tapestry. One notable type of poetry prominently represented in the Genizah is the muwashshah, a strophic form used in religious and secular poetry, frequently culminating in Arabic or a mixture of Arabic and Hebrew (Beeri 2012, pp. 780–95; Lieber 2013, pp. 5341–43; Rand 2013; Schmelzer 1997). Nonetheless, Arabic poetry, as opposed to Hebrew poetry, is an area that has hitherto received relatively little attention in Genizah scholarship.

Therefore, this research project conducts for the first time a historical examination of a hitherto neglected collection of poems written in Judaeo-Arabic, a form of Middle Arabic that is distinguished primarily by its use of Hebrew script and which frequently includes Hebrew or Aramaic lexical elements (Khan 2007; 2016, pp. 22–24, 47–50). This is specifically known as Classical Judaeo-Arabic, the variety used from the tenth to the fifteenth century (Khan 2016, p. 26), as the present paper investigates two poetic fragments that delve into the themes of Abrahamic legacies and the patriarchs of Bani Israel, who are acknowledged as prophets in Islam. The primary objective is to unveil a nuanced Jewish–Islamic perspective on the interconnected cultural fabric of Abrahamic traditions.

Although this study aims to present a sociocultural and historical context of the Abrahamic legacy derived from Judaeo-Arabic poems from the Cairo Genizah, it is important to recognize the long history of comparative studies of the Abrahamic religions. Initially, adherents of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam sought to understand and often refute their neighbors’ religious claims. During the early modern period, European scholars, both Catholic and Protestant, began to adopt a comparative approach to these monotheistic religions. These early studies were frequently polemical rather than ecumenical, as evidenced by Enlightenment texts that questioned the prophecies of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. From the nineteenth century onward, the study of these religions shifted towards a more scholarly, non-theological approach. The modern era has seen a resurgence in the comparative analysis of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, focusing on both their similarities and differences. This renewed focus has laid the groundwork for contemporary comparative studies (e.g., see Peters 2018; Silverstein and Stroumsa 2015; Hughes 2012; Levenson 2012; Busse 1998; Kuschel 1995).

This scholarly context is essential for grasping the relationships among the Abrahamic religions, which share overlapping similarities, particularly in their reverence for Abraham and his legacy. These connections are evident in the Judaeo-Arabic poems from the Genizah, highlighting their intertwined faiths, histories, cultures, and memories.

Furthermore, employing Simonson’s concept of writing “through literature” (Simonson 1970, p. 139), this research posits that poetry transcends mere text collection; it acts as a mirror reflecting the sociocultural realities of its time. This lens is crucial for understanding how these poetic fragments function as cultural heirlooms, revealing the dynamics of faith and religious exchanges between Jews and Muslims during the medieval period. Rina Drory (2000, p. 129) emphasizes the significance of considering diverse literary and poetic texts as interconnected components of a larger system, while Sarah Godsell (2019) asserts that poetry provides a distinctive lens on truth and narrative, allowing access to historical subjects often obscured in other genres.

By integrating these theoretical insights, this study enhances our understanding of historical and cultural dynamics, linking literature, history, and religious–cultural dimensions. The analysis situates the poems within the discourse of interfaith relations, illuminating the connections among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Such a framework reveals how the poems reflect the intricate tapestry of medieval Islamic culture and their ongoing relevance in Genizah studies. This research introduces Judaeo-Arabic interculturality and Jewish–Islamic coexistence through a two-step methodology: transcribing Judaeo-Arabic texts into Arabic and translating them into English, followed by a historical analysis of poetic verses celebrating the Abrahamic tradition. This analysis approach aims to uncover new sociocultural and historical dimensions of Jewish interactions across the premodern Mediterranean and Middle East.

2. Genizah’s Arabic Poetry and Jewish–Islamic Interculturality

The Genizah’s Judaeo-Arabic poetry, i.e., Arabic written in Hebrew script (Khan 2007), represents a form of premodern Middle Arabic that does not strictly adhere to classical Arabic or the modern vernacular but occupies an intermediary linguistic space. Jews of the premodern Arab–Islamic world commonly spoke Arabic and were acquainted with Arab culture, but only a few mastered Arabic script. The Jewish religious obligations required Jews to learn Hebrew script from childhood, leading them to incorporate Hebrew characters into their Arabic writings. While Hebrew was used to copy and study sacred Jewish texts, prayer, and liturgical poetry, Judaeo-Arabic became prevalent in personal correspondence and philosophical studies (Baker and Polliack 2001, p. ix; Stillman 2018, pp. 294–26; Goitein 1967–1993, vol. 5, p. xv).

The interaction among Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the East was characterized by a shared intellectual culture in which these communities were well-versed in each other’s texts and traditions (Reif 2002, pp. 127–28; Luṭf 2019, pp. 21–26). Arabic served as a lingua franca and a medium through which Jewish and Christian communities engaged with their Muslim counterparts. Unlike Muslims, who adhered to the literary standard of al-ʿarabiyya derived from the language of the Qurʾān, Jews and Christians exercised greater linguistic flexibility. Jews thus frequently used Judaeo-Arabic in their daily lives, a practice that reflected their intention to preserve their linguistic identity while fostering a shared sociolect that enhanced solidarity within their social framework (Wagner 2010, pp. 4–8).

The Jewish community in Egypt flourished under the generally tolerant Fatimid rule, making significant contributions to the intellectual and cultural landscape of Egyptian society. Esteemed scholars such as Saadya Gaon (d. 942),1 who emerged from this milieu, left a lasting impact across Eastern Jewish communities. He was a renowned medieval rabbi and poet, also known as Saʿīd bin Yūsuf al-Fayyūmī, and is recognized as one of the earliest Jewish poets who wrote in Arabic. Regarded as the founder of Judaeo-Arabic culture, he crafted the first comprehensive Jewish prayer book with Arabic worship instructions and composed poetry and legal texts in Arabic. This period of relative tolerance enabled Jews to participate in the Fatimid bureaucracy and integrate deeply into Egyptian society, as evidenced by their extensive use of Arabic for both secular and religious purposes (Cohen 2009, pp. 59–61; Haverkamp 2004, pp. 1–16; Yeshaya 2010a, pp. 34–36).

Considering the global situation across the trans-Mediterranean during the High Middle Ages, the coexistence of Muslims and Jews was evident, especially when contrasted with the hostility faced by Jews in Latin Christian Europe. In Europe, Jews were unfamiliar with Latin, the language of high culture and the Church; they adopted local languages like Old French or Italian, neglecting Aramaic. Jews in the Arab world shifted from Aramaic to Arabic, confronting fewer linguistic obstacles, as Arabic served both high culture and daily communication, sharing linguistic affinities with Aramaic and Hebrew. The Islamic environment, which was less hostile than Latin Christendom, facilitated a smooth shift for Eastern Jews to Arabic by the tenth century, aiding assimilation into Islamic culture (Cohen 2009, pp. 59–61; Haverkamp 2004, pp. 1–16).

A keenness to learn Arabic is evident through the narrative of Judah al-Ḥarīzī (1165–1225 CE),2 a Jew from Toledo who visited Alexandria around 1215. He mentioned that the Jewish people he encountered during his travels around the Mashriq were not as proficient in Hebrew as he had expected. Rather, they were influenced by Arab culture, which was the situation for most medieval Eastern Jews of the Arab and Muslim world (Yeshaya 2010b, p. 151; 2010a, pp. 4–5). Moreover, written Arabic—not only in the spoken language—was advantageous and essential for Jewish individuals who aimed to occupy administrative or medical roles or assume a certain position in Islamic society (Qāsim 1993, pp. 69–70; Goitein 1967–1993, vol. 1, pp. 66–67, vol. 2, pp. 211–19).

Throughout most periods of Islamic history, Jews experienced favorable and benevolent treatment. While Islam opposed paganism, it recognized Judaism and Christianity as monotheistic counterparts, referring to them as “people of the book”. Under the Pact of Umar, known in Arabic as ʿahd ʿUmar (Cohen 1999), which served as an essential document outlining the responsibilities of non-Muslims residing in the Muslim lands in the Middle Ages, Muslims granted Jews and Christians permission to practice their religions. The Qurʾān acknowledges Jews and Christians as “People of the Book” (ʾAhl al-kitāb), establishing their juristic authority and instructing Muslims to respect their earlier revelations. While it notes that Jews and Christians will not be satisfied until Muslims adopt their beliefs, true guidance is found in following the religion of Abraham, i.e., Islam, while recognizing all prophets’ revelations, including those of Moses and Jesus, without distinction (Qurʾān 2:120–22, 130–136, 256). This thus conferred upon them a protected status as dhimmis in Islam, subject to specific taxes called “Jizya” (Cohen 2009, pp. 57–59; Scheindlin 1998, pp. 73–75).

Meanwhile, scholars of each religious group consulted and exchanged ideas with one another, creating an interfaith dialogue. Al-Sakhāwī (d. 902/1497) acknowledged that al-Maqrīzī (d. 1442) was well-versed in the doctrines of the al-dhimma, including Jews, and he was consulted on some issues by scholars of different faiths. This scholarly religious exchange between Jewish and Muslim intellectuals in Egypt is exemplified by al-Maqrīzī’s relationship with Ibrāhīm al-Yahūdī, which reflects the integration of Jews into Egyptian culture. Al-Maqrīzī regarded Ibrāhīm al-Yahūdī as the most knowledgeable among Egyptian Jews in memorizing the texts of the Torah and the books of the prophets (Al-Sakhāwī 2002, vol. 1, p. 76; 1937, vol. 1:2, pp. 116–17).

Furthermore, the tolerant policies of the Fatimids in Egypt (969–1171) drew Jews from East and West to Egypt, forming a diverse and influential community. Jews thus held positions in the bureaucracy and thrived as a community, but faced hardship during the times of famine, and particularly in later periods, plague. Despite their own marked differences, Jews broadly engaged in intellectual exchange, sharing languages, traditions, literature, and culture with their Muslim counterparts, achieving remarkable intellectual, cultural, and scientific advancements under Islamic rule in the Middle Ages (Luṭf 2019, pp. 21–26; Yadgar 2016, pp. 7–13, 19–24; Cohen 2009, pp. 57–61; Reif 2002, pp. 127–28). This framework explains why Jews embraced Arab–Islamic culture in the Middle Ages, which led to creating what is called by Goitein a “Jewish-Arab symbiosis” (Goitein 1949), which was defined by Bernard Lewis as a “Judaeo-Muslim symbiosis” (Lewis 1984). One could also call this phenomenon a “Jewish-Islamic coexistence” within the premodern Islamic cultural sphere.

The Judaeo-Arabic poetry found in the Cairo Genizah captures the cultural and social dynamics of the Jews, highlighting their coexistence with Arabs and Muslims in the premodern era. This poetry reflects the influence of Eastern Jewish poetic schools, which developed styles distinct from liturgical practices while drawing inspiration from contemporary Arabic poetry. Poets such as Eli b. Amram from eleventh-century Egypt (Bareket 2017), emphasized themes of exile and redemption, which resonated with early liturgical hymns and revealed commonalities among Jewish communities across the premodern Islamic Mediterranean (Tobi 2010, pp. 67–72; Bareket 2017; Cambridge University Library T-S 12.44; T-S 12.484).

Furthermore, the historical intermingling between Jews and Muslims fostered a vibrant exchange of intellectual and cultural ideas, as evidenced by the Judaeo-Arabic poetry from the Genizah. These works not only reveal a profound spiritual connection among the Jewish people but also present diverse perspectives on Abraham, his sons Isaac and Ishmael, and other relations. Complementing these literary expressions, Jewish travelers significantly contributed to this narrative by documenting their journeys. Notable figures such as Benjamin of Tudela (fl. 1165–1173), Rabbi Jechiel of Paris (fl. 1238–1244), Isaac ben Joseph b. Chelo (d. 1334), Meshullam ben Menahem of Volterra (d. 1508), and Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro (d. 1515) described numerous sites associated with Abraham, illustrating how these communities interpreted their shared heritage and maintained cultural ties across the region (Adler 1987, pp. 38–63, 115–29, 130–50, 156–250).

3. Celebrating Abrahamic Legacy in Judaeo-Arabic Poetry from the Cairo Genizah

The Abrahamic legacy forms a shared cultural foundation among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, centered on the figure of Abraham and his covenant with God. In this context, Delaney (2017) suggests that all kinship in the Abrahamic religions is spiritual due to beliefs about procreation found in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scriptures. Both Islam and Judaism regard Abraham’s sons, Ishmael and Isaac, as the patriarchs of Arabs and Hebrews, respectively. This idealized lineage, or the “family resemblances” as used by Wittgenstein (1953), further fosters a sense of kinship, shared history, and intellectual exchange among these communities throughout the premodern Mediterranean and both the Islamic East and West, despite their differences (Solomon et al. 2005, pp. 36–39; Goitein 2005, pp. 19–45; Yadgar 2016, pp. 5–6).

Abraham is recognized in the Old Testament as the father of both Ishmael and Isaac, which establishes him as a pivotal patriarch for both groups. The Old Testament refers to him as “a father of many nations” (Genesis 17:5), underscoring this dual heritage. In Judaism, Abraham (Avraham) is honored as the founding patriarch who entered into a covenant with God, while in Islam, he (Ibrahīm) is revered as a prophet advocating monotheism and is associated with significant sites like the Kaʿba (House of God) in Mecca and with the sacrifice of Ismāʿīl (e.g., Qurʾān 2:136, 6:84–86). This shared ancestry emphasizes the convergence of these groups despite their diverse religious, cultural, and linguistic identities.

The Cairo Genizah’s poetic fragments include various themes related to Abraham, the Israelites’ prophets (בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל/Bənēy Yīsrāʾēl), the destruction of the First Temple, the Promised Land, and the yearning for Jerusalem. The torn paper folio, Cambridge University Library T-S NS 314.34 (see Figure 1) is one of the earliest Genizah fragments that celebrate the Abrahamic legacy and the prophets of Israel. It contains a poem that specifically praises the prophets Abraham, Isaac, and Josef, narrating their stories. On the verso (T-S NS 314.34, verso f2:16), it reads:

                                                                       ונחן בני אסראיל ואלסיד אלדי (ونحن بني اسرايل والسيد الدي )

“We are Israelites (nation of Israel), and the master whom”

On the recto (Figure 1), it continues celebrating Abraham’s legacy and reads:

Arabic Transcript فداه بكبش دو العلا والتكاملي: وشعب نباه دو الملك نافعا بتكسير اصنام لا بجاهلي: فهدا هو إبراهيم واسحاق ابنه وابن ابنه يعقوب فخر الـ قبالي: عليهم سلام الله	Judaeo-Arabic Script פדאה בכבש דו אל עלא ואל תכאמלי : ושעב נבאה דו אלמלך נאפעא בתכסיר אצנאם לא בגאהלי: פהדא הו אבראהים ואסחאק אבנה ואבן אבנה יעקוב פכֿר אל קבאלי:עליהם סלאם אללה
Translation:          He, Almighty and excelled, sacrificed a sheep for him:          And we are the nation whom the Lord elevated for the good          by destroying idols, not through idolatry.          This is Abraham (Ibrāhīm) and Isaac,          His son (Son of Abraham), and his grandson Jacob, the pride of the          Tribes: God’s/Allah’s Peace be upon them

Figure 1. Cambridge University Library T-S NS 314.34, recto f1: 1–6.

Figure 1. Cambridge University Library T-S NS 314.34, recto f1: 1–6.

The above poetic narratives celebrated Abraham and his descendants, particularly focusing on the binding of Isaac (the Akedah) (Genesis 22:2–8, 22:14; Sasser 2017). According to the twelfth-century Jewish scholar Maimonides, the purpose of the binding of Isaac was not to test Abraham’s faith but to teach him the lesson that human sacrifice is not acceptable to God. Maimonides further argues that God’s promise to Abraham was not a promise of redemption for Isaacs’s life but rather a promise of future reward for Abraham’s faith and obedience (Maimonides 2002, pp. 2–40; McCallum 2007, p. 140). In both medieval Jewish literature and tradition, the depiction of the binding of Isaac held significant importance. In Jewish midrashic and exegetical works, the binding of Isaac frequently appeared as a central motif (Adelman 2010, pp. 31–32; Lavee 2013).

The poem recalls a “distant” history of Jewish people and prophets in the early medieval period. This fragment likely belongs to the Classical Genizah Period (11–13th century). It contains names such as Abraham (Ibrāhīm), Ishaq (Isaac) and Ya’qoob (Jacob), Musa (Moses), Yosef (Joseph), the Nile River, and Mount Sinai (Ṭūr Sinai), which thus revives an early history of the Children of Israel, especially in Egypt. The fragment belongs to the “poetry of enthusiasm”, in which the poet praises the history of the Israelites by recalling the glorification of Abraham and his prophetic lineage. This poem is likely drawn from a long poem by the pre-Islamic Arabian Jewish poet Al-Samawʾal b. ʿĀdiyā (d. 560 AD), which commences with the verse Āla ayyuhā al-Ḍayfu alladhī ʿāba Sādatī (O guest who has criticized my Lord (Ibn ʿĀdiyā 2024).

Both Arabs and Israelites recognized a shared Abrahamic lineage, with Arab traditions of Abraham prior to Islam but also influenced by earlier Jewish and Christian narratives. This intersection of heritage deeply impacted their historical entanglements, as reflected in cultural expressions such as poetry, which explored themes of devotion, collective memory, and longing. Despite differing interpretations, both traditions honored Abraham as a symbol of unwavering faith and history, central to their beliefs (Peters 2018; Hendel 2005, pp. 11–33; Andrews 1990, p. 5).

In this context, Ṭāhā Ḥusayn asserts that religious emotions in (pre-Islamic Arabic) poetry were as influential as political motivations. Poetry supported prophecy, relayed stories, and persuaded audiences, drawing on shared Judaic–Christian and Quranic–Muslim traditions. While Judaism, Christianity, and Islam differ in doctrine, none of them claimed exclusive ownership of the Abrahamic legacy. Muslims view Islam as the continuation of Abraham’s upright (ḥanīf) faith, asserting that Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian nor a polytheist (e.g., Qur’an 3:67, 95, 161).

These poetic narratives were not solely political or religious tools but also unique sociocultural expressions reflecting the shared memory of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities, rooted in their intertwined traditions (Ḥusayn 1927, pp. 135–38, 145–47, 152–56), rooted in their intertwined pre-Islamic Arab peninsular tradition. For instance, this shared narrative of sacrifice and devotion is further echoed in the works of the pre-Islamic poet Umayyah b. Abī al-Ṣalt (d. 626 CE), who, by advocating for monotheism over idol worship, relates themes of sacrifice and unwavering devotion to a singular divine power. His works, like those of later poets, resonated with the Abrahamic tradition and emphasized the continuity of monotheistic beliefs in Arab culture from before the advent of Islam. He mentions the sacrifice story of Abraham’s son in verses included in a poem entitled Iṣbir al-nafsī ʿinda kull malamm (be patient in the face of every calamity).

أَبُنَيَّ إِنّي نَذَرتُكَ لِلَّهِ شَحيطاً ، فَاِصبِر فِدىً لَكَ حالي أَجابَ الغُلامُ أَن قالَ فيهِ، كُلُّ شَيٍ لِلَّهِ غَيرُ اِنتِحالِ أَبُتي إِنَّني جَزَيتُكَ بِالَّلهِ تَقيّاً، بِهِ عَلى كُلِ حالِ فَاِقضِ ما قَد نَذَرتَ لِلَّهِ وَاَكفُف، عَن دَمي أَن يَمَسُّهُ سِربالي وَاِشدُد الصَفدَ لا أَحيدَ عَن، السِكّينِ حَيدَ الأَسيرِ ذي الأَغلالِ إِنَّني آلَمُ المَحَزَّ وَإِنّي، لا أَمَسُّ الأَذقانَ ذاتَ السِبالِ وَلَهُ مُديَةٌ تُخايَلُ في اللَحمِ، حَذامٌ حَنِيَّةٌ كالهِلالِ جَعَلَ اللَهُ جيدَهُ مِن نُحاسٍ، إِذ رَآهُ زَولاً مِنَ الأَزوالِ بَينَما يَخلَعُ السَرابيلَ عَنهُ، فَكَّهُ رَبُّهُ بِكَبشٍ جُلالِ	.14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22
(Ibn Abī al-Ṣalt 2024, pp. 14–22).
Translation:
14. my son, I have vowed you to God as a sacrifice, so be patient, for my entire being is offered as redemption for you. 15. The boy responded, saying: “Everything is for God, and nothing can be claimed falsely as one’s own [choice]”. 16. My father, I have repaid you with piety, trusting in God in all circumstances. 17. Fulfill what you have vowed to God, but spare my blood from staining my garments. 18. Bind me tightly, for I will not flinch from the blade, like a captive bound in chains. 19. I feel the pain of the wound, yet I will not touch my chin with my hands. 20. He has a knife that cuts through flesh, swift and sharp like a crescent moon. 21. But God made his neck as solid as bronze, when He saw him slipping away from His tests. 22. And while he was removing his garment, His Lord ransomed him with a mighty ram

The religious and sociocultural convergence of these narratives highlights the deep-rooted themes of sacrifice, faith, and shared ancestry in both Jewish and Muslim traditions. These poetic expressions go beyond simple storytelling; they represent a collective memory that unites these communities through their interconnected history and beliefs.

The story of Abraham’s son’s binding holds foundational significance in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, though each tradition interprets it differently. In Jewish tradition, the binding of Isaac serves as a lesson against human sacrifice. Christianity sees it as a prefiguration of Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection, drawing parallels between Isaac and Jesus. In Islam, the son is generally identified as Ishmael, highlighting submission to God’s will, an act commemorated during ʿEīd al-Āḍḥa with the sacrifice of an animal, normally a sheep. Despite these differences, the story symbolizes unwavering devotion and shapes cultural and theological discourse in all three religions, reflecting their shared Abrahamic heritage and its moral lessons (Berman 1997; Firestone 1990; Jensen 1993).

This fragmentary poem above (T-S NS 314.34, recto f1:1-6) continues to recollect the stories of Abraham and his descendants, including Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, who are also revered as prophets in Islam in another folio (Cambridge University Library T-S NS 314.34 (1r), recto f2: 1-6), albeit in a different context.

Arabic Transcript والله شرفهم بما لم عليه لمخبر في العاجل وال اجلي: الا لعقبهم الدي يحبهم وفداهم بفضايل ونوايلي : انصت لفخر يترك القلب مولها وينشب نارا في الضلوع الـ دواخلي:

Judaeo-Arabic Script ואללה שרפהם במא לם עליה למכבר פי אל עאגל ואל אגלי: אלא לעקבהם אלדי יחבהם ופדאהם בפצֹאיל ונואילי: אנצת לפכר יתרך אלקלב מולהא וינשב נארא פי אלצֹלוע אל דואכלי

Translation:         and Allah [God] honored them with what was never given to         a messenger in early or later times (in all times)         except only for those who succeeded them, who love them and who sacrificed them         with virtues and generous bestowal (of God): You should listen to the glory/pride         that leaves the heart ardently in love and causes a burning         Fire inside the chest:

The reverse of the fragment presents an interesting Judaeo-Arabic context of the ancient stories of Joseph and Moses in Egypt. Though fragmentary and incomplete, its verses mention Jacob, Mount Sinai (Ṭūr Sinai), Egypt, Yosef, and the Nile River. One can understand the discourse in the fragment by connecting all of the surviving parts. For instance, it recounts how Joseph was imprisoned, recounting his story in Egypt until he gained power and saved the nation from starvation for years. It follows with the story of Prophet Moses (see Figure 2), another traditional-prophetic story with various narratives in all Abrahamic religions.

Arabic Transcript ايا علي شاطيه عدد الـ […] مخايلي : الم يوكز الـ قبطي موسی بوزخه فغاص كمو تورن هوا	Judaeo-Arabic Script איא עלי שאטיה עדד אל[…] מכאילי : אלם יוכז אל קבטי מוסי בוזכֿהﹰ פגֿאץ כמו תורן הוא
Translation         […] on its shore [the Nile], the number of         signs. Did not Moses torment the Copt (Egyptian)         so he (the Copt) fell like a bull, …

This part of the fragment, though damaged, indicates the story of Moses and his encounter with the Egyptian Pharaoh and his people. In this vein, the word “Qibṭ/Qibṭ” (Copt) is used anachronistically to refer to the ancient Egyptian foes of Moses and the Israelites before it became synonymous with Egyptian Christians after the Arab–Muslim conquest of Egypt between 19–21AH/ 640–42 AD. While the term “Copt” originates from the Greek word “Aegyptos” (Aίγυπτος), from which in turn is derived the Latin “Aegyptus”, it was used to refer to the land and people of Egypt, the Greek word is itself derived from the ancient Egyptian term “Hakeptah”, which translates to “the land and spirit of the God Ptah”, who was associated with the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis (Mikhail 2021, pp. 11–45; Kolta 1985, pp. 39–51; Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023).

It is interesting to find that the poetic narrative aligns with both the Egyptian cultural and Islamic qurʾānic narrative of Moses’s story and the Israelites (Qurʾān: 2:40, 2:47, 2:83, 2:122, 2:246, 17:2, 17:4, 17:101, 17:104; Keeler 2005, pp. 55–60). In a Qurʾānic passage, the narrative unfolds as Moses enters his city and encounters a fight between a man from his people, i.e., the Children of Israel, and an enemy from among the “Copts”. When the Israelites sought his help against the Copt, Moses intervened and struck down the Copt (Qurʾān, 28:15).

Building on the reflections found in an earlier Judaeo-Arabic poetic fragment from the Cairo Genizah, another intriguing example is presented in fragment T.S NS 289.5b (Figure 3). Despite the fragment’s physical deterioration, with numerous holes and noticeable stains, its concluding verses resonate with profound meaning and reads:

Arabic Transcript [……………..] بسيط عربي علي ال שיר […]יר זולתך אין לי קצין או גביר يا رب انت الواحد الفرد الصمد [………………..] وا[…] العالم ومحصيهم عدد اختصنا شعبا من صالح الكتير واختار إبراهيم وهو طفل صغير يصحق (اسحاق)خلصه من حد العدا واضحـ[ه] [ملاك هالوهـ]ـيم كبش للفدا

Judaeo-Arabic Script [………………..] בסיט ערבי עלי אל שיר […]יר זולתך אין לי קצין או גביר יא רב אנת אלואחד אלפרד אלצמד [………………..] וא[…] אלעאלם ומחציהם עדד אכתצנא שעבא מן צאלח אלכתיר ואכתאר אבראהים והו טפל צגי יצחק כלאה מן חד אלעדא ואצח[ה] [מלאך האלוה]ים כבש ללפדא

Translation         A simple (basīṭ) Arabic on the […]         A poem [on the model of?] ‘Without you, I have no prince or hero’         Oh Lord/God, you are the Everlasting One,         [……….]         And the One who [….] the world and makes them numerous (?).         He (God) favored us as a nation is to the advantage of many (in the interest of many)         And He chose Ibrāhim (Abraham) while he was a young child         Isaac, He saved him from the dangerous knife (lit. ‘knife of aggression’)         And the Angel of God [provided] a sheep for sacrifice.

The fragment is written in a Judaeo-Arabic poem (piyyūt), containing a mix of Hebrew words, and it was likely transcribed or copied during the twelfth/thirteenth century by an anonymous poet, who continues to honor the Abrahamic legacy and prophetic lineage referring to the Chosen People of Israel (Bani Israel).

It is composed in the Egyptian colloquial mawwāl style, providing evidence of Jewish cultural assimilation into medieval Egyptian society. The mawwāl is an Arabic poem sung by a wide range of people, from peasants to professional bards. There is a preference attributing the origin of the mawwāl to Hārūn al-Rashīd’s era in Iraq. However, its origins in Egypt go back to the Fatimid dynasty, and it was performed during national holidays and other important events. The mawwāl reflects a significant part of Egyptian life, portraying the daily experiences of Egyptians, from their modest homes to market interactions. It carries significant cultural value as it authentically conveys the voices of ordinary people, articulating their triumphs, challenges, and aspirations through the powerful medium of music and poetry. Its structure facilitates simple memorization, narration, and singing, enabling listeners to follow along readily (Cachia 1977; Hanna 1967).

Building on this, the Arabic poetry from the Cairo Genizah celebrates a shared Abrahamic legacy, weaving together themes of sacrifice, faith, and divine mercy. These poetic fragments offer insight into how medieval Jewish communities in Arab lands harmonized their Hebrew biblical traditions with Islamic culture. Reflecting devotion and reverence, the poetry captures the spirit of Abraham’s unwavering faith, memory, and culture, highlighting the common ground between Isaac and Ishmael, Judaism and Islam, as well as between the Jewish–Hebrew and Islamic–Arabic cultures.

Furthermore, this incorporation was not only evident in pre-Islamic cultures and societies of both Jews and Arabs but also continued to evolve, merging the use of Qur’anic and biblical figures within a poetic context. This is evident in the aforementioned Genizah Arabic fragments (CUL, T-S NS 289.5b, recto: 1–9), where the third verse of the poem draws inspiration from the first two verses of Surat Al-Ikhlās (Qurʾān 112:1–2), which holds significant importance in Islamic theology and practice: “Say, He is Allah, [who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge” (Qul huwa Allāhu aḥad, Allāhu al-ṣamad). The poem then transitions into praise for the Children of Israel, seamlessly blending elements from both the Bible and the Quran. This synthesis exemplifies a shared cultural practice among Jews and Muslims during that period, highlighting the interconnectedness of their religious traditions.

It is noteworthy that Jews in the Islamic world often incorporated introductory formulae that included Qurʾānic verses and that were modeled on the basmala (“bismi llāhi ar-raḥmāni ar-raḥīmi”, i.e., in the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate), or other seemingly Qurʾānic or Islamic supplications (Almbladh 2010). The use of the basmala is evident in several Judaeo-Arabic letters from the Cairo Genizah, including those that begin with it (CUL, T-S AS 153.44 & T-S AS 151.91).

This practice seems to date back to at least the Fatimid era, with Samuel b. Jacob al-Maghribī (ca. 1170), a Jewish vizier, using Qurʾānic verses in his official letters to the Caliph (Stroumsa 1995, pp. 179–97; Lazarus-Yafeh 1992, pp. 69–71; Perlmann 1964). In the Mamluk period, the Nagid of Egypt, head of the Jewish community, similarly incorporated Qurʾānic phrases in correspondence. Historians like Ibn ʿAbd al-Ẓāhir and al-Qalqashandī record such practices (Brett and Fentress 2017, p. 196; Goitein 1967–1993, vol. 1, pp. 285–86).

Commonly referenced verses included selections from suras such as al-Ikhlāṣ and al-Fātiḥah, with the basmala frequently used to begin poetry, letters, and books. A notable example is found in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, where this phrase opens the title of the manuscript Kitāb mahāsin al-ādāb, Ms. Hunt 488, f 84–160 (Figure 4), which translates to “The Book of the Virtues of Literature”.

4. Conclusions

These poems offer a profound insight into the emotional and religious–cultural dimensions of the Abrahamic legacy, resonating with the lived experiences and exchanges of Jewish communities in the premodern Islamic world. They depict how Jews in Muslim lands navigated a shared cultural landscape, maintaining distinct religious identities while balancing integration into Arab and Muslim society with the preservation of historical memory within a medieval context. Though the surviving copies date to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, suggesting they reflect popular ideas of that era, the precise date of composition remains uncertain. Rather than being confined to a single historical moment, these poems seem to embody both longing and a celebration of Jewish heritage, influenced by Abrahamic cultural and religious themes familiar to their Muslim counterparts. As part of a broader literary tradition in the eastern Mediterranean, they blend expressions of praise and pride in Jewish lineage. Ultimately, this analysis highlights the capacity of literature and poetry to capture the intellectual, religious, social, and cultural climate in which Jews lived in premodern Egypt and across the eastern Islamic Mediterranean.

The poems in this study reflect a literary and cultural dynamic rooted in the Abrahamic legacy, offering inspiration for Jews by drawing on their supposed ancestral connection to Abraham and emphasizing the promise of gathering and unity within their community. The Genizah poetry on the Akedah evokes themes of sacrifice, faith, and divine promise amid broader historical and cultural shifts. These poems not only delve into the theological and emotional depth of the Abrahamic legacy but also mirror the Jewish community’s experiences and exchanges within the premodern Islamic world. They illustrate how Jews in Muslim lands navigated a shared cultural space while maintaining distinct religious identities, showing their integration into Arab and Muslim society and bridging historical memories within a medieval framework.

The Cairo Genizah is crucial for understanding the shared history of Jews, Muslims, and Christians in premodern Egypt and the Mediterranean. Historian Qāsim ʿAbdu Qāsim asserted that medieval Jews in Egypt primarily identified as Egyptians, sharing language, songs, and poetry with their society (Qāsim 1993, p. 167). Despite being written in Hebrew script and largely inaccessible to non-Jews, these poems reveal how Judaeo-Arabic provided a space for Jewish intellectuals to express ideas, even if these were sometimes at odds with Muslim beliefs. Therefore, examining the Abrahamic legacy in Genizah Arabic poetry uncovers the intricate interplay between Jewish and Muslim cultures. Such poetry underscores the fusion of Jewish and Arabic traditions, highlighting their shared reverence for figures like Abraham and enriching our understanding of their historical coexistence and cultural interactions.