Fazang’s Perspective on the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment 發心: An Examination Through the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 as Cited in the Huayanjing Tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記
Buddhist Culture Research Institute, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
Religions 2024, 15(11), 1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111357
Submission received: 30 July 2024
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Revised: 14 October 2024
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Accepted: 2 November 2024
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Published: 7 November 2024
Abstract
:This study examines the parts of the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna (AFM) quoted in the Huayanjing tanxuanji (Tanxuanji) and sheds light on how Fazang, as a Huayan master, understood and utilized the AFM in the Tanxuanji. In the Tanxuanji, the AFM is quoted 36 times, and the arousal of the thought of enlightenment is most frequently mentioned. Therefore, this study focuses on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment and reveals Fazang’s unique understanding of this concept within Huayan thought. First, Fazang understood the stage of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as corresponding to the first abode. Second, Fazang explains several chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra beyond the first stage of abode in the Tanxuanji by quoting the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, which stems from his theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith. Third, while Fazang categorized the AFM within the final teaching in terms of its concept of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, he may have recognized the AFM as aligning with either the same teaching of the one vehicle or the distinct teaching of the one vehicle. Fourth, Fazang’s view on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the Tanxuanji reflects his distinctive perspective evident in the Fazangshu. This understanding of Fazang explains why the arousal of the thought of enlightenment was quoted most frequently in the Tanxuanji.
1. Introduction
Fazang 法藏 (643–712), the third patriarch of the Huayan school (huayanzong 華嚴宗), played a pivotal role in the flourishing of Huayan studies in China. Among his numerous Huayan-related works, the Record of the Search for the Profundities of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra (Huayanjing tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記, hereafter Tanxuanji) is the commentary on the 60-volume Avataṃsaka-sūtra (Dafangguanfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經), translated by Buddhabhadra 佛陀跋陀羅 (359–429). In the Tanxuanji, Fazang quoted several sutras and treatises, including the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna (Dasheng qixin lun 大乘起信論, hereafter AFM). The citations of the AFM in this work may be related to Fazang’s other notable writing, Fazang’s Commentary on the AFM (Dashen qixinlun yiji 大乘起信論義記, hereafter Fazangshu 法藏疏1). In particular, given that the Tanxuanji and the Fazangshu are believed to have been written around the same time (Han 2023; Sakurai 2019), it is likely that Fazang’s understanding of the AFM, formed while writing the Fazangshu, significantly influenced the Tanxuanji.
Among the previous research, there were studies such as (Hamar 2023) that dealt with the Huayan and the AFM together. However, no study has yet focused specifically on Fazang’s use of the AFM within the Tanxuanji. Therefore, this paper examines the parts of the AFM quoted in the Tanxuanji and sheds light on how Fazang, as a Huayan master, understood and utilized the AFM in the Tanxuanji.
The methodology of this study involves several steps. First, I identify and categorize sentences of AFM quoted in the Tanxuanji according to their corresponding Avataṃsaka-sūtra chapters, examining the contents of these citations. Due to the extensive nature of the AFM references, this paper narrows its focus to the concept of “arousal of the thought of enlightenment” (faxin 發心), the most frequently quoted topic from the AFM in the Tanxuanji. These citations are then further classified based on the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment outlined in the AFM: the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith (xinchengjiu faxin 信成就發心), the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice (jiexing faxin 解行發心), and the aspiration to awakening through realization (zheng faxin 證發心). Subsequently, I conduct a detailed analysis of the sections of the Tanxuanji that incorporate citations of the AFM. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of Fazang’s interpretation of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, I also compare these citations with corresponding passages in the Fazangshu, providing a deeper insight into Fazang’s perspective on AFM’s concept of arousal of the thought of enlightenment.
This paper aims to elucidate several aspects of Fazang’s use of the AFM in the Tanxuanji: the specific content quoted, Fazang’s interpretation of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, his purpose for citing the AFM in the Tanxuanji, and AFM’s position within Fazang’s doctrinal taxonomy (jiaopan 敎判). While this study is limited in scope, focusing solely on the Tanxuanji among Fazang’s works and specifically on the concept of “arousal of the thought of enlightenment” among citations of the AFM, it offers a unique perspective. Unlike previous research that primarily examined Fazang’s understanding of the AFM through the Fazangshu, this study analyzes his interpretation of the AFM from the viewpoint of Huayan thought as expressed in the Tanxuanji. This approach provides valuable insights into Fazang’s understanding of the AFM within the broader context of Huayan philosophy.
2. The AFM Cited in the Tanxuanji
Fazang used the AFM in the Tanxuanji in three different ways. First, only the book title “qixinlun” 起信論 is mentioned. Second, he begins sentences with “It says in the AFM” 起信論云. Thirdly, without revealing the title of the book, he refers to a sentence from the AFM by saying, “It is said in a treatise” 論云. In this way, Fazang quoted the AFM a total of 36 times in the Tanxuanji. Based on the chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, his references to the AFM are organized in Table 1 below.
In Table 1, the frequency of citations from the AFM in the Tanxuanji is organized according to the chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra. The order of the frequency is as follows: Chapter 17, Ten Practices of Bodhisattva (seven times), Chapter 6, Revealing Discussion by Bodhisattva (five times), Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness (four times), and so on. Additional chapters are also included with their respective citation frequencies. Furthermore, when categorizing the contents of Table 1, several key themes emerge, such as the three all-pervasive qualities of Thusness, essence (ti 體), attributes (xiang 相), and function (yong 用) from both the section on positing the meaning (liyifen 立義分) and the explanatory section (jieshifen 解釋分), the permeation (xunxi 熏習), defiled mind (ranxin 染心), and arousal of the thought of enlightenment from the explanatory section, the aspect of practice and the attitude of faith (xiuxing xinxin fen 修行信心分), etc.
Among these, the part of arousal of the thought of enlightenment from the explanatory section was mentioned most frequently at 19 times, accounting for approximately 50% of all citations. This citation pattern of Fazang demonstrates his emphasis on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment from the AFM in his interpretation of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
To accurately analyze Fazang’s understanding of the AFM as reflected in the Tanxuanji, all 36 citations compiled in Table 1 should be examined. However, it is challenging to review them all within this paper. Therefore, I will limit the examination to the “arousal of the thought of enlightenment”, which is the most frequently mentioned concept from the AFM in the Tanxuanji.
The AFM explains three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment: the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice, and the aspiration to awakening through realization. Organizing the citation of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment from the AFM in the Tanxuanji according to these three categories yields Table 2 below.
Additionally, Table 2 includes relevant interpretations from the Fazangshu for the part of the AFM cited in the Tanxuanji for a more thorough examination of Fazang’s understanding of the text. Analysis of Table 2 shows that the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith was quoted 11 times, the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice 6 times, and the aspiration to awakening through realization 2 times. Thus, the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith was used the most frequently in the Tanxuanji. Next, by analyzing Table 2 in relation to the chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, two inferences can be made. The first inference concerns the stages (jiewei 階位) of three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment. While the AFM explicitly defines the stage only for the aspiration to awakening through realization—spanning from the stage of pure mind (jingxin di 淨心地) to the bodhisattva’s final stage (pusajiujing di 菩薩究竟地)—Fazang’s understanding of all three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment can be inferred by examining the chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra in which they are quoted.
In the case of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, this arousal of the thought of enlightenment appears predominately in Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness, which emphasizes “faith”. When the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith was further analyzed, it is subdivided into three: stages, causes, and condition and three types of minds. Notably, the stages related to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith are discussed within Chapter 11, Ten Abodes of Bodhisattvas. This pattern suggests that Fazang conceptualizes the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as a relationship between faith (xin 信) and abode (zhu 住).
In the case of the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice, it presents a unique pattern compared to the other two arousals of the thought of enlightenment. All six citations pertaining to the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice are found only in Chapter 17, Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas. This suggests a link between the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice and the ten practices. Moreover, it indicates that Fazang places more emphasis on the practice (xing 行) over the understanding (jie 解) within this arousal of the thought of enlightenment.
In the case of the aspiration to awakening through realization, the AFM connects this arousal of the thought of enlightenment to specific stages (di 地). However, Fazang takes a different approach in the Tanxuanji. Fazang draws from Chapter 32, Arising from the Original Nature of Jewel King Tathagata, and Chapter 34, Entry into the Realm of Reality, instead of referencing Chapter 11, Ten Abodes of Bodhisattva. This suggests that Fazang intended to show that the stage of perfection goes beyond even the bodhisattva’s final stage through the aspiration to awakening through realization. This interpretation is further supported by Fazang’s classification of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra into cause and effect (yinguo 因果). In this classification, he places Chapter 11, Ten Abodes of Bodhisattva, under the cause and effect of distinction (chabie yinguo 差別因果). Meanwhile, he assigns Chapter 32, Arising from the Original Nature of Jewel King Tathagata, to the cause and effect of equality (pingdeng yinguo 平等因果) and Chapter 34, Entry into the Realm of Reality, to the cause and effect of experiential entry into buddha truth (zhengru yinguo 證入因果).
The second inference is Fazang’s theory of accomplishing Buddhahood (chengfo 成佛). The AFM states a hierarchy of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, with the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith occupying the lowest position. However, in the Tanxuanji, Fazang extensively references the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith across several chapters: Revealing Discussion by Bodhisattva (6), Chief in Goodness (8), Dedications of Vajraketu Bodhisattvas (21), Ten Stages (22), Practice of the Samantabhadra Bodhisattva (31), Detachment from the World (33), and Entry into the Realm of Reality (34). These chapters correspond to a progression from the ten faiths (shixin 十信) through the ten stages (shidi 十地) and beyond. This comprehensive application of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith across various developmental stages suggests an interpretation aligned with Fazang’s theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith (xinman chengfu 信滿成佛).3
Since these two inferences derive from an analysis of the chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, which cited the AFM in the Tanxuanji, to validate these interpretations, a thorough examination of the specific citations is imperative. Consequently, the subsequent section will present a detailed analysis of the citations enumerated in Table 2.
3. The Three Types of Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment in the Tanxuanji
3.1. The Aspiration to Awakening Through the Perfection of Faith
3.1.1. The First Abode of the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment (chufaxin zhu 初發心住)
In the Tanxuanji, the concept of “the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith” from the AFM is mentioned four times. Each instance presents only the title “qixinlun” 起信論 without quoting any sentences from the AFM. Notably, three of these citations differ from [Citation 14] in that they state “the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith” alongside the title.
[Citation 8] If in the Final Doctrine (zhongjiao 終教), when faith is perfected and one enters the abodes, it is said to be a non-retrogression. This corresponds to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in the AFM, which is also described as non-retrogression. Furthermore, in the following passage of [the Avataṃsaka-sūtra], it is similarly stated: “The pure faith (jingxin 淨信) and the profound mind (xhenxin 深心) are indestructible (bukehuai 不可壞)”.4
若終教中，信滿入住*則為不退，如《起信論》信成就發心不退故，及此下文深心淨信不可壞等(云云)。(T35, no. 1733, p. 176b21-23)5
[Citation 8] addresses advancing and regressing (jintui 進退). This is the seventh of eight divisions of doctrinal tenant (zongqu 宗趣) in the practice of the ten faiths (shixin 十信) from Chapter 6, Revealing Discussion by Bodhisattva, of the Tanxuanji. Fazang explains the advancing and regressing through his five teachings (wujiao 五敎): the Hīnayāna Teaching (xiaoshengjiao 小乘敎), the Elementary Doctrine (shijiao 始敎), the Final Doctrine (zhongjiao 終敎), the Sudden Enlightenment Doctrine (dunjiao 頓敎), and the Perfect Doctrine (yuanjiao圓敎).
In discussing the Final Doctrine, Fazang presents passages from both the AFM and the Avataṃsaka-sūtra as the basis for non-retrogression (butui 不退). The Avataṃsaka-sūtra is introduced with “the following passage of [the Avataṃsaka-sūtra]”. This passage is sourced from Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness, which describes “faith”. Its use in explaining Chapter 6 is likely intended to supplement the explanation of the final stage of faith. In Fazang’s doctrinal taxonomy, the Avataṃsaka-sūtra belongs to the Perfect Doctrine. This makes it seemingly inappropriate as evidence for explaining the Final Doctrine in the Tanxuanji. However, the profound mind mentioned in the quoted passage of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra is one of the three types of minds of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith. This allows the Avataṃsaka-sūtra to represent the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith of the AFM, which belongs to the Final Doctrine.
Regarding the AFM passage, the Tanxuanji states that “the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in the AFM being a non-retrogression”. This corresponds to the following passage of the AFM: “Those who have perfected the arousal of the thought of enlightenment through faith will enter the group of those who are determined to attain enlightenment and will never retrogression” 如是信心成就得發心者，入正定聚，畢竟不退。(T32, no. 1666, p. 580b25-26). In the AFM, the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith is explained by non-retrogression. However, it does not explicitly connect this concept with the ten abodes.
[Fazangshu] First, “enter the group of those who are determined to attain enlightenment [and will never] retrogression” reveals there is no loss to lower [stages]. That is to say, having entered the first abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment of the ten abodes, one does not fall to the level of the unenlightened or the Hīnayāna.6
初*入正*定聚不退者。顯於下無失也。謂入十住初發心住位。不墮凡小之地也。(T44, no. 1846, p. 278c7-8)7
In the Fazangshu, Fazang reveals that the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith corresponds to the first abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment within the ten abodes (shizhu 十住). He interprets the AFM‘s phrase “the group of those who are determined to attain enlightenment” as meaning “having entered the first abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment of the ten abodes”. In other words, “advancing toward the first stage of the ten abodes” refers to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as described in the AFM.
[Citation 11] It can be known that the four lines in one chant are as follows. This corresponds to the first aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith among the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the AFM, so it is said to be the first. It is the same as the first abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment and the chapter, Merit of the First Arousal of the Determination for Enlightenment (chufaxin gongdepin 初發心功德品) in the writing of [the Avataṃsaka-sutra] below.
一頌四句，如次應知。此是《起信論》三種發心中，當最初信成就發心，故云初也。同下文十住初發心住，及〈發心功德品〉。(T35, no. 1733, p. 187a2-5)
[Citation 11] is included in the section of questions and answers in Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness. The phrase “the four lines in one chant” refers to the sentence of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra “When the Bodhisattva, in birth and death, makes the arousal of the thought of enlightenment for the first time, [the Bodhisattva] always seeks enlightenment and remains firm and immovable” 菩薩於生死，最初發心時，一向求菩提，堅固不可動。(T9, no. 278, p. 432c29-433a1).
Fazang focuses on the second phrase “makes the arousal of the thought of enlightenment for the first time” and interprets “for the first time” as the “first” arousal of the thought of enlightenment, specifically the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith among the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment of the AFM. Furthermore, he presents a passage from Chapter 11, Ten Abodes of Bodhisattvas, of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra. This citation indicates that the “first” arousal of the thought of enlightenment is the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, corresponding to the stage of the abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment of the ten abodes. His annotation of this passage implies that the “first” arousal of the thought of enlightenment is synonymous with the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith and the abode of the aspiration for enlightenment.
[Citation 14] Question: Among these, if the Bodhisattva who has already reached the tenth stage of the [ten stage of] faith represents Buddhahood, is this a temporary manifestation (huaxian 化現) or actual enlightenment? Answer: … If in the Final Doctrine, at the superior advancing aspect of the final stage of the ten faiths, [the Bodhisattva] enters the initial stage of the ten abodes. That is, because [the Bodhisattva] attains non-retrogression, [the Bodhisattva] temporarily manifests Buddhahood. It is the same as what was explained in the AFM.
問此中既是十信菩薩現成佛者，為是暫時化現為實成耶。答 …若終教，十信滿心勝進分上入十住初，則得不退，故能暫時化現成佛，如《起信論》說。(T35, no. 1733, p. 189a22-27)
[Citation 14] is a question and answer that follows the explanation of “samādhi” (sanmei 三昧) in the first ocean seal samādhi (haiyin sanmei 海印三昧), one of the ten samādhis described in Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness.8 This dialogue addresses the Bodhisattva’s attainment of Buddhahood. Fazang explains that, within the context of the Final Doctrine, Boddhisattva, who has reached the final stage of the ten stages of faith, can temporarily manifest Buddhahood. He cites a passage from the AFM as evidence for this claim. Although [Citation 14] does not explicitly mention the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, it contains a passage of [Citation 14]: “at the superior advancing aspect of the final stage of the ten faiths, [the Bodhisattva] enters the initial stage of the ten abodes. That is, because [the Bodhisattva] attains non-retrogression”. This parallels the statement in [Citation 8], “faith is perfected and one enters the abodes, it is said to be a non-retrogression”. Therefore, the word “AFM” in [Citation 14] specifically indicates the concept of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as described in the AFM.
[Citation 15] While explaining in detail: First, one who relies on the outer world (waifan 外凡) cultivates faith in the wholesome roots (shangen 善根) and completes the deeds of skillful means for ten thousand kalpas (jie 劫). By doing so, one raises the imperturbable mind (juedingxin 決定心) in the great enlightenment (daputi 大菩提) and enters the stage of non-retrogression. It is said to be the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment (chufaxin 初發心). The first arousal of the thought of enlightenment is the abode. It is a compound word where there is equality of dependence between the terms (chiyeshi 持業釋). This corresponds to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in the AFM.
別中，初者謂依外凡，十千劫來修信善根方便行滿，於大菩提起決定心，入位不退，故云初發心。初發心即住，是持業釋。此當《起信論》中信成就發心也。(T35, no. 1733, p. 197b11-15)
[Citation 15] explains the sentence from Chapter 11, Ten Abodes of Bodhisattvas, of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra. “The practice of the ten abodes of Bodhisattva-mahāsattva (pusamohesa 菩薩摩訶薩) is what all Buddhas of the past, present, and future speak of. What are the ten [abodes]? The first is the arousal of the thought of enlightenment” 菩薩摩訶薩十住行，去、來、現在諸佛所說。何等為十。 一名初發心。(T9, no. 278, p. 444c27-28).
Fazang states that it is called the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment because of non-retrogression. He corresponds this first arousal of the thought of enlightenment to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as described in the AFM. Based on this statement, it is evident that Fazang recognizes the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as the stage of non-retrogression, which is equivalent to the first stage of the abode, the arousal of the thought of enlightenment.
In summary, Fazang indicates that the non-retrogression of the Final Doctrine corresponds to the first abode, the arousal of the thought of enlightenment among the ten abodes in [Citation 8] and [Citation 14]. He uses the AFM as a representative document of the Final Doctrine to substantiate this claim. Fazang’s understanding of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith can be identified in [Citation 11] and [Citation 15]. Both reveal that the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra corresponds to the first stage, the abode of the aspiration for enlightenment, of the ten abodes. Additionally, they connect this with the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as described in the AFM. However, they differ in that [Citation 11] does not mention the weather, and [Citation 15] states that the stage of the abode of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment is the status of non-retrogression. In both instances, the AFM was used to interpret the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
3.1.2. The Three Types of Minds of the Aspiration to Awakening Through the Perfection of Faith
In the AFM, the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith is subdivided into three types: the straightforward mind (zhi xin 直心), the profound mind (shen xin 深心), and the mind of great compassion (dabei xin大悲心). These three are mentioned five times in the Tanxuanji.
[Citation 13] In the ten meanings of the mind, first, the initial two phrases pertain to the mind heading straight toward principle. The [AFM] states, “The straightforward mind is thinking about the principle of Thusness (zhenrufa 眞如法)”.
十義心者，一初二句明正直趣理心，論云。直心者，正念真如法故。(T35, no. 1733, p. 187b21-23)
[Citation 13] follows the discussion of the cause of arousal of the thought of enlightenment in [Citation 12]. The passage “the initial two phrases” refers to the following excerpt from the Avataṃsaka-sūtra: “It is not without cause, nor is it without condition. The intention for enlightenment which Bodhisattva first raises is the straightforward mind and the great merit” 非是無所因，又亦非無緣，菩薩初發意，直心大功德。(T9, no. 278, p. 433a10-11). Fazang asserts that these two phrases represent “the mind heading straight toward principle”, correlating them with the concept of the straightforward mind from the AFM.
[Citation 24] Question: Why must it be these three dedications of merit (huixiang 迴向)? Answer: These three have many meanings, but briefly, there are ten [meaning]. First, there are three minds based on the enlightened mind. The AFM says, “There are three types of minds based on the thought of intention to achieve enlightenment (puti xin 菩提心). First is the straightforward mind, which is thinking about the principle of Thusness. The second is the profound mind, which is willing to practice all good deeds. The third is the mind of great compassion, which is trying to save all sentient beings from suffering”.
問何故須此三迴向耶。答此三有多義，略論十種。一約菩提心有三心故，《起信論》云。菩提心有三, 一直心，正念真如法故。二深心，樂修一切諸善行故。三大悲心，救拔一切眾生苦*故。(T35, no. 1733, p. 243c11-15)9
[Citation 24] is from the section in Chapter 21, Dedications of merit of Vajraketu Bodhisattvas. This accounts for the dedications of merit by dividing them into three types: sentient beings (zhongsheng 衆生), enlightenment (puti 菩提), and absolute reality (shiji 實際). While explaining the thought of intention to achieve enlightenment, which is the first of the ten meanings of the three types of dedications of merit, Fazang quotes the sentence about the three types of minds from the AFM.
Fazang also connects the three types of dedications of merit with the three types of minds of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in the Fazangshu, when he interprets the AFM’s sentence “What kind of mind do the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith arouse? Briefly, there are three types [of minds]” 信成就發心者，發何等心，略說有三種。(T32, no. 1666, p. 580c6-7), as below.
[Fazangshu] Although the range of wondrous practices is broad, three encapsulate [them all]. For these reasons, it is stated above that there are three types, simply put. Because these three are the three categories of percepts, the Three Virtues and Three Bodies are due to these three. In addition, [these three] are the three dedications of the merit. The first dedication of merit is the absolute reality. The second dedication of merit is the enlightenment. The third dedication of merit is the sentient beings. All should be matched with [one of the Three Virtues and Three Bodies] to explain this.
妙行雖廣。三行統收。故上*云略說三也。以此即是三聚戒故。三德三身皆由此故。亦即是彼三迴向故。謂初迴*向實際。次向菩提。後向眾生。皆應相配釋之。(T44, no. 1846, p. 279a15-18)10
This interpretation, connecting Huayan’s dedication of merit with the three types of minds from the AFM, is noteworthy, as it is Fazang’s unique interpretation not found in the Kisillon so 起信論疏 (The Wŏnhyo’s Commentary on the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna, hereafter Wŏnhyoso). While the Fazangshu shows the relation between the three minds and the three dedications of merit, it does not explain the reasoning behind these connections. Therefore, the part of the three dedications of merit in the Tanxuanji must be examined.
In the Tanxuanji, the three dedications of merit are explained by classifying them based on what the wholesome root (shangen 善根) of Bodhisattva relies on and what Bodhisattva desires. According to the latter, first, the dedication of merit of the sentient beings is the mind of great compassion of the AFM because Boddhisattva wants to save sentient beings. Second, the dedication of merit of the enlightenment is the profound mind because Bodhisattva seeks the supreme enlightenment (wushang puti 無上菩提). Third, the dedication of merit of the absolute reality is the straightforward mind because Bodhisattva gains the Thusness.
[Citation 30] The fifth is the straightforward mind. This is heading straight to the truth through the mastery of revolving. Therefore, it is said the straightforward mind … It is called the straightforward mind because all heads toward the correct mind (zhengxin 正心). The AFM says, “The straightforward mind is thinking about the principle of Thusness”.
第五直心者，以迴轉自在，令正趣真實，故云直心。… 並正心趣向，故名直心。《起信論》云。直心者，正念真如法故。(T35, no. 1733, p. 404a25-b1)
Fazang divides Chapter 31, Practice of the Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, into three categories: universal (pu 普), worthy (xian 賢), and practice (xing 行). [Citation 30] belongs to the part of “worthy”. Within this framework, he describes the straightforward mind as one of the subjects of the antidote (duizhi 對治). Fazang reveals that it is called “straightforward mind” because it truly advances to the correct mind. Importantly, he equates this correct mind with the concept of Thusness as presented in the AFM.
[Citation 35] When teaching the Dharma, the overall explanation is that recalling past good deeds arouses the thought of intention to achieve enlightenment (fa putixin 發菩提心). This is general and the next three minds are specific aspects. The AFM says that one who arouses the thought of intention to achieve enlightenment is stirring three types of minds up: “The first is the straightforward mind, which is thinking about the principle of Thusness. The second is the profound mind, willing to practice all good deeds. The third is the mind of great compassion, which is trying to save all sentient beings from suffering”. The passage below “removing birth and death” indicates the function of the three types of minds. First, the passage below [“removing birth and death” (chu shengsi 除生死) means that] the straightforward mind is freed from suffering. Second, the passage below “taking in” (shequ 攝取) [means that] the mind of [great] compassion takes sentient beings (wu 物). Third, the passage below “attaining all” (de yiqie 得一切) [means that] the profound mind attains dharma.
就授法中，起其宿善發菩提心，此是總；下三心是別。起信論云發菩提心者，發三種心：一者直心，正念真心法故；二者深心，樂修一切諸善行故；三者大悲心，救拔一切苦眾生故。 除生死下顯三心業用，初是直心離苦、二攝取下悲心攝物、三得一切下深心得法。(T35, no. 1733, p. 469b9-15)
[Citation 35] is the part that explains the arousing thought of intention to achieve enlightenment using the three types of minds from the AFM. This clarifies the virtue of the ten dedications of merits in Chapter 34, Entry into the Realm of Reality. In the Tanxuanji, Fazang subdivides the arousal of the thought of intention to achieve enlightenment in Huayan into three types of minds, applying the three types of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment from the AFM. He then explains these three types of minds by correlating them with sentences from the Avataṃsaka-sūtra: “By removing the suffering of birth and death, it enable them to navigate the sea of birth and death without becoming weary. By embracing the sea of sentient beings, it enables [them] to dwell in the sea of virtue. By attaining the light of the sea of omniscience, it enables them to perceive the sea of all Buddhas and traverse the sea of omniscience” 除生死苦，遊生死海而無疲倦。攝取眾生海，令住功德海。得一切法智海光明，見一切佛海，度一切智海。(T9, no. 278, p. 714a2-5).
First, “Removing … birth and death” of the Tanxuanji refers to “By removing the suffering of birth and death, it enables them to navigate the sea of birth and death without becoming weary” of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra. Fazang matches it to the straightforward mind. Second, the passage “… taking in” corresponds to “By embracing the sea of sentient beings, it enables [them] to dwell in the sea of virtue”. He matches it to the mind of great compassion. Third, the passage “attaining all” links to “By attaining the light of the sea of omniscience, it enables them to perceive the sea of all Buddha and traverse the sea of omniscience”. He connects it with the profound mind.
However, as indicated in Table 3 below, the interpretations of the straightforward mind and the profound mind in the Tanxuanji and the AFM show some differences. The Tanxuanji interprets the straightforward mind as removing the suffering of birth and death, whereas the AFM explains it as seeing the principle of Thusness. The profound mind, which cultivates good deeds in the AFM, refers to attaining omniscience (yiqie zhi 一切智) in the Tanxuanji. The mind of great compassion, which saves sentient beings from suffering in the AFM, is interpreted as enabling sentient beings to attain wisdom in the Tanxuanji.
[Citation 13] and [Citation 30] refer only to the straightforward mind, [Citation 27] to the straightforward mind and the profound mind, and [Citation 24] and [Citation 35] to all three minds. This section elucidates three distinctive aspects of Fazang’s interpretation.
First, Fazang connects the three minds with the three dedications of merits [Citation 24]. Second, Fazang’s understanding of the three types of minds diverges slightly from that presented in the AFM [Citations 27 and 35]. Third, he presents a unique perspective on the stages associated with the three types of minds. According to Fazang’s understanding, the three types of minds are included in the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith, ranging from the final stage of faith to the first stage of abode. However, his exposition of the three minds extends across various chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, including Chapter 8, Chief in Goodness, Chapter 21, Dedications of merit of Vajraketu Bodhisattvas, Chapter 22, Ten Stages, Chapter 31, Practice of the Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, and Chapter 34, Entry into the Realm of Reality. This extensive range, encompassing the ten faiths through the ten abodes, suggests that Fazang’s citations of the three types of minds prioritize their content over their stage in his interpretation of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
Furthermore, Fazang’s utilization of the AFM, which posits the accomplishing Buddhahood at the stage of non-retrogression in the final stage of faith, appears to serve as a hermeneutical tool. It facilitates a more accessible understanding of the theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith in Fazang’s Huayan thought. In this context, the AFM functions as an interpretive lens for comprehending the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
This theoretical framework of becoming buddha by the completion of faith likely enabled Fazang to explicate the three types of minds of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith across several chapters in the Tanxuanji. Furthermore, Fazang’s emphasis on the completion of faith explains his preference for discussing the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith more frequently than the other two kinds of arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the Tanxuanji.11
3.2. The Aspiration to Awakening Through Understanding and Practice
In Chapter 17, Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas, of the 60-volume Avataṃsaka-sūtra, the practice is divided into ten parts: practice of giving joy (huanxi xing 歡喜行), practice of benefit (raoyi xing 饒益行), practice of no anger (wuhuihen xing 無恚恨行), practice of inexhaustible (wujin xing 無盡行), practice of non-confusion (lichiluan xing 離癡亂行), practice of skillful manifestation (shanxian xing 善現行), practice of nonattachment (wuzhuo xing 無著行), practice of reverence (zunzhong xing 尊重行), practice of good teachings (shanfa xing 善法行), and practice of truth (zhenshi xing 眞實行). Among these, the Tanxuanji quotes the AFM while explaining the practice of giving joy [Citation 17], the beneficial practice [Citation 18], the practice of no anger [Citation 19], the practice of inexhaustible [Citation 20], the practice of non-confusion [Citation 21], and the reverential practice [Citation 23].12
[Citation 17] The first is discrimination of the essential nature (tixing 體性), and there are three … [Of the three,] the second is based on [essential] nature (xing 性), or it takes the Thusness (zhenru 眞如) as the [essential] nature. The AFM says, “By knowing that the essence of the dharma-nature (faxing 法性) free from covetousness (qiantan 慳貪), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of giving (tan poluomi 檀波羅蜜)”. This indicates that it is the same as the merit (gongde 功德) of no greed in the dharma-nature. This is based on the Final Doctrine.
一辨體性，有三。… 二約性，或以真如為性故，起信論云 知法性體無慳貪，隨順修行檀波羅蜜。此顯順同法性之中無貪之功德故也。此約終教。(T35, no. 1733, p. 218c3-9)
[Citation 18] The second is the practice of benefit, and there are also six aspects. The first [aspect] is the essential nature, and there are three aspects … [Among the three,] the second is based on the origin (ben 本), and it takes the Thusness as the [essential] nature. The AFM says, “By knowing that the essence of the dharma-nature is purity (jing 淨) and is devoid of polluted (ran 染), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of morality (jie poluomi 戒波羅蜜)”.
第二饒益中，亦作六門。一體性者，三門。… 二約本，亦以真如為性。起信論云。知法性體淨無染，隨順修行戒波羅蜜。(T35, no. 1733, p. 220a20-25)
[Citation 19] In addition, to be discussed as a whole, the four dharmas are taken as the [essential] nature. The first is free from wrath (chen 嗔), the second is vigor (qin 勤), the third is wisdom (hui 慧), and [the fourth is] thinking (si 思). These three karmas (sanye 三業) are connected to the previous part. The AFM states: “By knowing that the essence of the dharma-nature is free from wrath and affliction (nao 惱), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of forbearance (ren poluomi 忍波羅蜜)”.
又通論、四法為體、初無嗔、次勤、後慧并思、是三業通前故也。又起信論、 知法性體無嗔離惱故、隨順修行忍波羅蜜。(T35, no. 1733, p. 221a29-b3)
Fazang quotes the AFM to identify the essential nature of these six practices. Notably, tracing the sentences of [Citation 17], [Citation 18], and [Citation 19], all are included in the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice among the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment. He connects each practice of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra with each paramita through the AFM. The first, “practice of giving joy”, corresponds to the perfection of giving. The second, “practice of benefit”, aligns with the perfection of morality. The third practice, which encompasses wrath, vigor, wisdom, and thinking as essence, is associated with the perfection of forbearance, primarily focusing on the aspect of wrath. In [Citation 17] and [Citation 18], the Tanxuanji states “It takes the Thusness as the [essential] nature”, and the corresponding sentence in the AFM says “[One] follows the essence of the dharma-nature”. This parallel suggests that Fazang interprets the essence of the dharma nature as the Thusness. The foundation for this interpretation is elucidated in the Fazangshu.
[Fazangshu] This is the understanding and practice that is the basis for the arousal of the thought of enlightenment. Because impurities obstruct [understanding and lead to] deviating from Thusness, one must cultivate the practices that are free from obstructions in order to accord with Thusness. The rest of the passage can be known.
即發心所依之*解行也。以垢障乖真故、修離障之行以順如也。餘文可知。(T44, no. 1846, p. 280b7-9)13
The above passage of the Fazangshu, Fazang incorporates Wŏnhyo’s interpretation while also presenting his interpretative perspective. Fazang added the theory that the object of the following (shun 順) is the Thusness.
[Citation 20] The fourth is the practice of inexhaustible. This is the perfection of effort (jingjin poluomi 精進波羅蜜), and there are four aspects. First, the two dharmas, vigor and thinking, are taken as the essential [nature]. Relying on the AFM, “By knowing that the dharma-nature …”
第四無盡行，即是精進波羅蜜，作四門。 一以勤思二法為體，依起信論，知法性等。(T35, no. 1733, p. 222b1-2)
[Citation 21] The fifth is the practice of non-confusion. This is the perfection of meditation (chan poluomi 禪波羅蜜), and there are four aspects. First, the concentration (ding 定) of object-contingent (biejing 別境) is taken as the essential [nature]. The AFM [says], “By knowing that the dharma-nature …”
第五離癡亂行，即是禪波羅蜜，亦作四門。一以別境中定為體。起信論知法性等。(T35, no. 1733, p. 222c19-20)
[Citation 23] The second is the essential nature. The great vow is taken as the essence of practice, but it is the subsequently attained knowledge (houdezhi 後得智). The Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra (yujialun 瑜伽論), Volume 49, says, “the excellence of the long-desired subsequently attained knowledge, so it is named as the perfection of the vow (yuan poluomi 願波羅蜜多)”.14 In addition, the three dharmas, the belief (xin 信), the desire (yu 欲), and the determination (shengjie 勝解), are taken as the [essential] nature. The AFM also says …
二體性者，以大願為行體，然是後得智，故瑜伽第四十九云，悕求後後地智殊勝性，名願波羅蜜多。 又以信欲勝解三法為性。又起信論(云云)。(T35, no. 1733, p. 226b13-16)
In discussing the fourth practice of inexhaustible [Citation 20] and the fifth practice of non-confusion [Citation 21], Fazang mentions the AFM but only states the relevant perfections without providing the corresponding sentence. For the eighth practice of reverence [Citation 23], he neither clarifies the corresponding sentence from the AFM nor specifies the corresponding perfections. Instead, it quotes the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra to identify it as the perfection of the vow. Due to these inconsistencies, it is not possible to determine from the Tanxuanjie alone with specific sentences from the AFM Fazang referred to in [Citation 20], [Citation 21], and [Citation 23]. To identify these corresponding sentences, it is necessary to examine the section on the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice in the AFM. The reason for limiting the range of the review to the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice is that [Citation 17], [Citation 18], and [Citation 19] are included in this part. In addition, [Citation 20] and [Citation 21] also mention the term “By knowing that the dharma-nature” (zhi faxing 知法性), which is consistent with the previous three citations.
[AFM] It should be known that the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice transforms into [stage] more excellent … By knowing that the essence of the dharma-nature is free from the covetousness, [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of giving. By knowing that the dharma-nature is devoid of polluted and is free from the five excessive desires (wuyuguo 五欲過), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of morality (xhi puluomi 尸波羅蜜). By knowing that the dharma-nature is devoid of suffering and is free from wrath and affliction, [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of forbearance (chanti puluomi 羼提波羅蜜). By knowing that the dharma-nature does not have distinction of body and mind and is free from laziness (xiedai 懈怠), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of effort (piliye puluomi 毘梨耶波羅蜜). By knowing that the dharma-nature is always concentration and is free from scattering (luan 亂), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of meditation. By knowing that the essence of the dharma-nature is science (ming 明) and is free from nescience (wuming 無明), [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of wisdom (bore boluomi 般若波羅蜜).
解行發心者，當知轉勝。… 以知法性體無慳貪故，隨順修行檀波羅蜜；以知法性無染，離五欲過故，隨順修行尸波羅蜜；以知法性無苦，離瞋惱故，隨順修行羼提波羅蜜；以知法性無身心相，離懈怠故，隨順修行毘梨耶波羅蜜；以知法性常定，體無亂故，隨順修行禪波羅蜜；以知法性體明，離無明故，隨順修行般若波羅蜜。(T32, no. 1666, p. 581a17-26)
In the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice of the AFM, a practitioner knows and follows the dharma nature and practices the six perfections (liu poluomi 六波羅蜜): the perfection of giving, the perfection of morality, the perfection of forbearance, the perfection of effort, the perfection of meditation, and the perfection of wisdom. Having discussed the first three previously, this section will focus on the last three. In the Tanxuanji, the fourth and the fifth practices are defined as the perfections of effort and meditation, respectively. If so, the part of the AFM referenced in [Citation 20] is likely “By knowing that the dharma-nature does not have the distinction of body and mind and is free from laziness, [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of effort”. For [Citation 21], the relevant AFM passage appears to be “By knowing that the dharma-nature is always concentration and is free from scattering, [they] accord with [the dharma-nature] and practice the perfection of meditation”. The eighth practice, identified as the perfection of the vow, presents a discrepancy. The last remaining passage of the AFM pertains to the perfection of wisdom, which Fazang has already linked to the sixth practice, the practice of skillful manifestation.15 Consequently, despite [Citation 23] in the Tanxuanji claiming to cite the AFM, there is no corresponding sentence in the AFM. It is assumed that Fazang may have only mentioned the title of the AFM in [Citation 23] due to his awareness of certain discrepancies. This becomes apparent in his explanation of the six perfections of the AFM as the ten perfections in the Tanxuanji. However, a detailed exploration of this issue will be addressed separately in future research.
To summarize, in the Tanxuanji, Fazang elucidated the essence of the six practices described in Chapter 17, Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas, by referencing the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice from the AFM. This analysis reveals two crucial aspects of Fazang’s understanding. First, Fazang equated the essence of the practice of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra with the essence of the dharma nature in the AFM. Second, he aligned the stage of the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice with the ten practices. Notably, the AFM does not explicitly define the stage of the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice, only stating its superiority to the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith. However, Fazang exclusively quoted this arousal of the thought of enlightenment when explaining Chapter 17, Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas. This selective quotation strongly suggests that Fazang viewed the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice as equivalent to the ten practices.
3.3. The Aspiration to Awakening Through Realization
In Tanxuanji, Fazang cites the aspiration to awakening through realization in Chapter 32, Arising from the Original Nature of Jewel King Tathagata, and Chapter 34, Entry into the Realm of Reality.
[Citation 32] “Nothing to be formed (suoxian 所現)” means that the forming subject (nengxian 能現) is not different from [the thing to be formed]. One illuminates by itself, so it is named enlightenment (jue 覺). The AFM says, “All Buddhas and Tathāgatas get out of the mark of the subjective perceiver, so they are omnipresent. The reason is that [the] mind is true, and this is the nature of all dharma. Oneself (ziti 自體) illuminates every delusive concept (wangfa 妄法). This is the function (yong 用) of great wisdom (dazhi 大智) … It is named omniscience (yiqie zhongzhi 一切種智)”.
而無所現者，與能現不殊故，即自體顯照，故名為覺。起信論云。諸佛如來離於見想，無所不遍。心真實故，即是諸法之性。自體顯照一切妄法，有大智用乃至名一切種智。(T35, no. 1733, p. 413a13-17)
The stage of the aspiration to awakening through realization from the AFM can be inferred from [Citation 32]. This citation references the AFM while explaining the phrase “Nothing to be formed” in the Avataṃsaka-sūtra sentence “Tathāgata is called all enlightenment (yiqie jue 一切覺) because all thoughts and senses of sentient beings arise in enlightenment, but nothing to be formed” 一切眾生心念諸根，現菩提中，而無所現，故說如來為一切覺。(T9, no. 278, p. 626c17-18).
Notably, when quoting the AFM in this context, Fazang omits certain parts, such as “so the function of great wisdom comes up … It is named omniscience”. The omitted sentence is “There is the function of great wisdom and innumerable skillful means (wuliang fangbian 無量方便), all sentient beings accord to the interpretations what they should be understood. All can reveal various meanings of the Dharma. This is the reason it can be named omniscience” 有大智用無量方便，隨諸眾生*所應得解，皆能開示種種法義，是故得名一切種智。(T32, no. 1666, p. 581b25-27).16 These omissions are also present in the Fazangshu, suggesting a consistent approach in Fazang’s interpretations.
[Fazangshu] Here, [if we] analyze sentient beings’ delusive concept, then [they] are found to be superimposed on Buddha mind. Just so, because the fountainhead of mind (xinyuan 心源) is devoid of duality, it is attained thusly. The Avataṃsaka-sūtra says, “As to mind, Buddha too is just so; As to Buddha, sentient beings are just so. These three, Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings, are not different”.17 This is what [the AFM] means. The wisdom power based on [the awareness that] all beings have the same original nature (tongti zhili 同體智力) gives rise to superior skillful means and encompasses all sentient beings. [This is why the AFM] says, “There is the function of great wisdom… It is named omniscience”.
今辨眾生妄法則在於佛心之*上。良以心源無二故得然也。華嚴*云。如心佛亦爾。如佛眾生然。心佛及眾生。是三無差別。此之謂也。以同體智力。起勝方便攝化有情故。云有大智用乃至名一切種智也。(T44, no. 1846, p. 281b15-20)18
The identical citation method in the Fazangshu and the Tanxuanji demonstrates two things. First, it shows that the interpretative stance of the Fazang is consistently maintained in both the Fazangshu and the Tanxuanji. In particular, the interpretation in the Fazangshu is a part that is not present in the Wŏnhyoso. This indicates that this interpretation is Fazang’s original contribution, not an adoption of Wŏnhyo’s view. Second, it highlights the part that Fazang emphasized in the aspiration to awakening through realization of the AFM. The content of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra as interpreted in the Tanxuanji is that there is no difference between the subjective perception and the visible object, which is identified as the Tathāgata. Although the subject of the content of the omitted part is also Tathāgata, it explains the function of using various means for sentient beings.
[Citation 34] Question: At what stages is this Sudhana (shancai 善財) a Bodhisattva? Answer: There is no correct division, so it is hard to reveal the stages. Someone judges him as the Bodhisattvas at the level of the bhūmis (dishang pusa 地上菩薩). This is the last two stages of the four types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, even though he makes up the arousal of the thought of enlightenment. In addition, this is the aspiration to awakening through realization of the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment in a śāstra (lun 論).
問此善財是何位菩薩。答經無正斷，位相難明。或有判為地上菩薩，設後發心則是四種發心中後二位也。又是論中三發心內證發心也。(T35, no. 1733, p. 454a5-8)
[Citation 34] presents a question and answer about observing Sudhana. In this context, Fazang reveals the level of Sudhana by referencing the aspiration to awakening through realization from the AFM. Although he refers to it only as śāstra without specifying the exact name, the Tanxuanji’s phrase “the aspiration to awakening through realization of the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment” clearly indicates that the śāstra in answer is the AFM. It is noteworthy that, among the śāstra written before Fazang, only the Explaining the Pure Land—A Treatise on Accumulated Doubts (Shi jingtu qunyi lun 釋淨土群疑論) of Huaigan 懷感 (d.u.), a monk of the Tang Dynasty, mentions “the aspiration to awakening through realization”. However, the Explaining the Pure Land—A Treatise on Accumulated Doubts does not describe the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment. Therefore, it can be confidently concluded that “śāstra” in this context indicates the AFM.
However, in [Citation 34], Fazang only uses the term “the aspiration to awakening through realization”, making it difficult to determine the precise status of the mind. The AFM states “The aspiration to awakening through realization is from the ground of pure mind to the bodhisattva’s final ground” 證發心者，從淨心地乃至菩薩究竟地。(T32, no. 1666, p. 581a26-27). This defines the aspiration to awakening through realization as corresponding to the ten stages (shidi 十地). Through this reference, we can confirm that Fazang presents the AFM as the basis for his view of Sudhana as a bodhisattva at the level of the bhūmis.
In summary, both the Tanxuanji and the Fazangshu demonstrate Fazang’s emphasis on the characteristics of Tathāgata, particularly the absence of distinction between subject and object. This focus provides insight into Fazang’s selective quoting of the AFM in these works. Fazang appears to prioritize passages from the AFM that relate specifically to this lack of subject–object distinction. In the Tanxuanji, Fazang strategically employs the AFM to underscore the nature of Tathāgata as the subject of “nothing to be formed” in the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
4. Conclusions
This paper explores Fazang’s interpretation of “the arousal of the thought of enlightenment” by analyzing his use of the AFM in the Tanxuanji. Within this analysis, special attention was given to the concept of “the arousal of the thought of enlightenment”, the most frequently quoted subject from the AFM in the Tanxuanji. I reclassified these citations according to the three types of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, as presented in Table 2. Analysis of this table led to two key inferences. To validate these inferences, I conducted a detailed examination of the citations related to the arousal of the thought of enlightenment.
The first inference concerns the stage of arousal of the thought of enlightenment. Initially, it was hypothesized that Fazang explained the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in relation to faith and abode. Upon review, it was confirmed that Fazang referenced the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith of the AFM when defining the first arousal of thought of enlightenment in the Avataṃsaka-sūtra as the stage of the arousal of the thought of enlightenment. This indicates that Fazang understood the stage of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as corresponding to the first abode [Citations 11 and 15].
Next, it was inferred that the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice relates to the ten practices. The review confirmed that Fazang correlated the ten practices of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra with the perfections described in the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice of the AFM [Citations 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 23]. This demonstrates Fazang’s effort to interpret the ten practices of Huayan by corresponding them to the six perfections, utilizing the aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice from the AFM. Furthermore, this reveals his understanding that the essential nature of practices of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra aligns with the dharma nature in the AFM.
Lastly, it was anticipated that the aspiration to awakening through realization would represent a stage transcending the tenth stage. The review showed that Fazang quoted the AFM when discussing the ten stages [Citation 34] and explaining the Tathāgata, who transcends the tenth stage [Citation 32]. This expansion of the aspiration to awakening through realization of the AFM in the Tanxuanji appears to stem from the differing stages in the AFM and the Avataṃsaka-sūtra.
The second inference pertains to Fazang’s theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith. It was hypothesized that the possibility that Fazang explains several chapters of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra beyond the first stage of abode in the Tanxuanji by quoting the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith stems from his theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith. The review confirmed that Fazang defines the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith as the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment, marking the transition from the final stage of faith to the first stage of abode. Notably, the three types of minds of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith: the straightforward mind, the profound mind, and the mind of great compassion are quoted in explanations of the dedications of merit. This reflects the theory of becoming buddha by the completion of faith, which posits that one attains Buddhahood from the final level of faith, persisting until the final stage. Thus, the AFM serves as a tool for Fazang to interpret the Avataṃsaka-sūtra through the lens of this theory.
Furthermore, two additional insights emerged from the examination of citations. First, in the Tanxuanji, Fazang positions the AFM within his doctrinal taxonomy (wujiao 敎判) as the Final Doctrine. This is evidenced by his references to the AFM as exemplifying the non-retrogression aspect of the Final Doctrine [Citations 8 and 14]. However, the Tanxuanji excludes the explanation of the Final Doctrine and the Three Vehicles when citing the AFM. This tendency raises questions, as the Avataṃsaka-sūtra is considered to represent the Perfect Doctrine and the One Vehicle. The reason for this can be understood by confirming Fazang’s view on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment. Fazang states in Volume 4 of the Tanxuanji “Because the perfect is the same as the final, it can be called the faith of non-regression only after entering the position”.19 The phrase “the faith of non-regression” refers to the non-regression of the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith of the AFM. Therefore, Fazang interprets the arousal of the thought of enlightenment, including the aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith in the AFM and the arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the Avataṃsaka-sūtra, as the same. Based on these findings, it appears that, while Fazang categorized the AFM within the final teaching in terms of its concept of arousal of the thought of enlightenment, he may have recognized the AFM as aligning with either the same teaching of the one vehicle (tongjiao yisheng 同教一乘) or the distinct teaching of the one vehicle (biejiao yisheng 別教一乘). Second, Fazang’s view on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment in the Tanxuanji reflects his distinctive perspective evident in the Fazangshu. This is supported by the sentences of the AFM that correspond to sections of the Fazangshu containing Fazang’s unique exegesis, which are absent in the Wŏnhyoso but predominantly quoted in the Tanxuanji. It has already been revealed that the Fazangshu shares numerous similarities with the Wŏnhyoso. However, an examination of the interpretation of the Fazangshu for the passages in the AFM quoted in the Tanxuanji, it becomes apparent that Fazang primarily presents his interpretations distinct from Wŏnhyo’s.20 This analysis suggests that Fazang had an independent perspective on the arousal of the thought of enlightenment, which appears to have influenced his exegesis in the Tanxuanji.
This study explored Fazang’s understanding of the AFM by analyzing its citations in the Tanxuanji, with a specific focus on the concept of arousal of the thought of enlightenment. However, there is a limitation of this approach in that it addresses only one aspect of Fazang’s engagement with the AFM. To develop a more comprehensive understanding of Fazang’s overall perspective on the AFM, future research should examine the remaining 17 citations not covered in this paper. This broader analysis will provide a more complete picture of how Fazang integrated the AFM into Huayan thought.
Funding
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2021S1A6A3A01097807).
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
| AFM | Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 |
| Fazangshu | Dashen qixinlun yiji 大乘起信論義記 |
| T | Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經 |
| Tanxuanji | Huayanjing tanxuan ji 華嚴經探玄記 |
| Wŏnhyoso | Kisillon so 起信論疏 |
| 1 | The Fazangshu is known as “大乘起信論義記”, because it is recorded as such in the Taishō Tripiṭaka 大正新脩大藏經. However, according to Kim (2021), upon reviewing all documents citing this book, most refer to Fazang’s commentary on the AFM as “起信論疏”. Based on this evidence, the original title of this book is likely “起信論疏”. Therefore, I abbreviate “大乘起信論義記” as “Fazangshu”. See (Kim 2021). | ||||||||||||||
| 2 | There are five sections in the AFM: (1) The section on causes and conditions (yinyuan fen 因緣分); (2) The section on positing the meaning (liyi fen 立義分); (3) The explanatory section (jieshi fen 解釋分); (4) The aspect of practice and the attitude of faith (xiuxing xinxin fen 修行信心分); (5) The encouragement of practice and the benefits thereof (quanxiu liyi fen 勸修利益分). | ||||||||||||||
| 3 | Fazang employs the term “becoming buddha by the completion of faith,” whereas Chengguan 澄觀 (738-839) and Zongmi 宗密 (780-841) who followed him use “becoming buddha by the first abode.” This difference reveals which concept they emphasize between “the faith” and “the abode.” See (Kim 2009). | ||||||||||||||
| 4 | T9. no. 278, p. 432a22. | ||||||||||||||
| 5 | * 住【大】，位【甲】. | ||||||||||||||
| 6 | The English translation of the Fazangshu refers to (Vorenkamp 2004). The same applies hereafter. | ||||||||||||||
| 7 | * 初: (國下35) (京下26) (身 a 下31) (金 a 下41) (佛下末7) (刊263), 言 (甲851); * 正: (甲851) (國下35) (身 a 下31) (金 a 下41) (佛下末7) (刊263), [正] or next to 正ィ (京下26) (高山下31) (金剛下2-14). See Nam et al. (2021, p. 263). | ||||||||||||||
| 8 | T9, no. 278, p. 434b25-c6. | ||||||||||||||
| 9 | * 眾生苦【大】，苦眾生【甲】. | ||||||||||||||
| 10 | * 上: (大) (甲852) (國下36) (京下27) (身 a 下32) (金 a 下41) (佛下末8), 上標: (刊266); * 迴: (大) (甲852) (京下27) (身 a 下32) (金 a 下41) (佛下末8), [廻] (國下36) (刊 266). See Nam et al. (2021, p. 266). | ||||||||||||||
| 11 | In this way, the Tanxuanji and the Fazangshu both describe the three minds with three dedications of merits, but when comparing each sentence, as in the following table, differences in the letters are found. The letters in the sentences of the Tanxuanji and the Fazangshu that differ from those in the AFM are written as “真如法”, “樂集”, “欲拔”, and “眾生苦” and [Citation 35] as “真心法”, “樂修”, “救拔”, and “苦眾生”. The second case, “樂集”, is written as “樂修” in [Citation 24] as well.
| ||||||||||||||
| 12 | T9, no. 278, p. 466b24-c22. | ||||||||||||||
| 13 | * 之: (大) (甲855) (國下38) (京下29) (身 a 下34) (金 a 下44) (佛下末11) (刊270), [之] (明下末21). See Nam et al. (2021, p. 270). | ||||||||||||||
| 14 | T30, no. 1579, p. 566a1-2, “悕求後後*智殊勝性，當知名願波羅蜜多”。 [* 後【大】，後地【宋】【元】【明】【宮】]. | ||||||||||||||
| 15 | T35, no. 1733, p. 223c4, “第六善現行，即般若波羅蜜” 。 | ||||||||||||||
| 16 | * 生【大】, 生性【宋】【元】【明】【宮】. | ||||||||||||||
| 17 | T9, no. 278, p. 465c28-29, “如心佛亦爾，如佛眾生然，心佛及眾生，是三無差別”. This sentence is from Chapter 16, Poetic Verse Bodhisattvas says in the Palace of the Suyama Heaven and is not the same as Chapter 32 of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra annotated by [Citation 32]. | ||||||||||||||
| 18 | * 之: (大) (甲857) (金 a 下47) [之] (國下41) (京下31) (身 a 下37) (佛下末14) (刊 276), [之]: (高山下37) (金剛下2-23); * 嚴: (大) (甲857) (身 a 下37) (金 a 下47) (刊278), 嚴+經 (國下41), [abrasion] (京下32). See Nam et al. (2021, p. 278). | ||||||||||||||
| 19 | T35, no. 1733, p. 176b23-24, “以圓同終故，入位已後方說為不退信也”. | ||||||||||||||
| 20 | For instance, although both the Wŏnhyoso and the Fazangshu use the Avataṃsaka-sūtra to explain the AFM, Wŏnhyo quotes it six times, whereas Fazang references it ten times (T44, no. 1844, pp. 203c7; 203c13; 204a12; 205c11; 205c20; T44, no. 1846, pp. 245c19; 247b10; 247c21; 248b21; 249c27; 249c29). Of these, only two citations correspond (T44, no. 1844, pp. 204a12; 205c11; T44, no. 1846, pp. 247c21; 249c29), suggesting that each distinct perspective is reflected in the citations of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra. Notably, Fazang references this sutra more frequently than Wŏnhyo and mentions “Huayanshu” 華嚴疏 twice (T44, no. 1846, pp. 242a27; 278c1). One instance relates to [Citation 12] and [Citation 34] of the Tanxuanji. Thus, it is possible that “Huayanshu” refers to the Tanxuanji. However, this interpretation is problematic, as the Tanxuanji also references “Huayanshu” (T35, no. 1733, p. 111b22, “廣釋如彼《華嚴疏》中。”). Nevertheless, this “Huayanshu” in the Tanxuanji, which explicates the ten types of teachings and schools, aligns with the content from another “Huayanshu” of the Fazangshu, thereby demonstrating the close relationship between the Tanxuanji and the Fazangshu. |
References
Primary Sources
Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 T32. No. 1666.Huayanjing tanxuan ji 華嚴經探玄記 T35. No. 1733.Dashen qixinlun yiji 大乘起信論義記 T44. No. 1846.Avataṃsaka-sūtra 大方廣佛華嚴經 T9. No. 278.Kisillon so 起信論疏 T44. No. 1844Secondary Sources
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Table 1.
The portion of the AFM cited in the Tanxuanji.
| No. | Chapter of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra | Tanxuanji (T35n1733) | AFM2 (T32n1666) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | (1) Pure Eye to See the Worlds 世間淨眼品 | 118c24 | Function | title |
| 2 | 121b13 | Three greatness | title | |
| 3 | 131c14-15 | Function | 579b17 | |
| 4 | (2) Vairocana 盧舍那佛品 | 158b17 | Function | title |
| 5 | 159a01 | 577a28-29 | ||
| 6 | (6) Revealing Discussion by Bodhisattva 菩薩明難品 | 175c19 | aspect of practice and the attitude of faith | title |
| 7 | 176b4 | aspect of practice and the attitude of faith | title | |
| 8 | 176b21-22 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | title | |
| 9 | 176c24-26 | introduction | 578b18 | |
| Section on positing the meaning | 575c21-22 | |||
| 10 | 181a20-22 | Explanatory section Permeation | 576c22-25 | |
| 11 | (8) Chief in Goodness 賢首菩薩品 | 187a3 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | title |
| 12 | 187b16 | title | ||
| 13 | 187b22 | title | ||
| 14 | 189a27 | “論” (580c7) | ||
| 15 | (11) Ten Abodes of Bodhisattvas 菩薩十住品 | 197b14 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | title |
| 16 | (16) Poetic Verse Bodhisattvas says in the Palace of the Suyama Heaven 夜摩天宮菩薩說偈品 | 215b17-19 | Section on positing the meaning | 576a5-7 |
| 17 | (17) Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas 功德花聚菩薩十行品 | 218c6-7 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 581a19-20 |
| 18 | 220a23-25 | 581a20-21 | ||
| 19 | 221b2-3 | 581a22-23 | ||
| 20 | 222b2 | title | ||
| 21 | 222c20 | title | ||
| 22 | 213a18 | title | ||
| 23 | 226b16 | title | ||
| 24 | (21) Dedications of merit of Vajraketu Bodhisattvas 金剛幢菩薩廻向品 | 243c13-15 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 580c7-9 |
| 25 | 269b9-10 | Aspect of practice and the attitude of faith | 582a22 | |
| 26 | 269c25-27 | Section on positing the meaning | 575c25-28 | |
| 27 | (22) Ten Stages 十地品 | 302c1-2 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 580c7-8 |
| 28 | 347a27 | title | ||
| 347b1-3 | Explanatory section | 576a5-7 | ||
| 29 | (24) Ten Kinds of Tolerance 十忍品 | 384a15-19 | Aspect of practice and the attitude of faith | 583a3-7 |
| 30 | (31) Practice of the Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普賢菩薩行品 | 404a29-b1 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 580c7 |
| 31 | (32) Arising from the Original Nature of Jewel King Tathagata 寶王如來性起品 | 405b12-13 | Explanatory section Three greatness | 579a15 |
| 32 | 413a14-17 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 581b23-27 | |
| 33 | (33) Detachment from the World 離世間品 | 424c8 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | title |
| 34 | (34) Entry into the Realm of Reality 入法界品 | 454a7-8 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | “論” |
| 35 | 469b10-13 | Explanatory section Arousal of the thought of enlightenment | 580c7-9 | |
| 36 | 481a1 | Explanatory section Defiled mind | title | |
Table 2.
The three arousals of the thought of enlightenment of the AFM cited in the Tanxuanji.
| Content | No. | Chapter of the Avataṃsaka-sūtra | Tanxuanji (T35n1733) | AFM (T32n1666) | Fazangshu (T44n1846) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aspiration to awakening through the perfection of faith | Stages | 8 | (6) Revealing Discussion by Bodhisattva | 176b21-22 | title | 278c5-12 |
| 11 | (8) Chief in Goodness | 187a3 | title | |||
| 14 | 189a27 | title | ||||
| 15 | (11) Ten Abodes of Bodhisattvas | 197b14 | title | |||
| causes and conditions | 12 | (8) Chief in Goodness | 187b16 | title | 278b15-c4 278c25-279a2 | |
| 33 | (33) Detachment from the World | 424c8 | title | |||
| Three types of minds | 13 | (8) Chief in Goodness | 189a27 | title | 279a8-19 | |
| 24 | (21) Dedications of merit Vajraketu Bodhisattvas | 243c13-15 | 580c7-9 | |||
| 27 | (22) Ten Stages | 302c1-2 | 580c7-8 | |||
| 30 | (31) Practice of the Samantabhadra Bodhisattva | 404a29-b1 | 580c7 | |||
| 35 | (34) Entry into the Realm of Reality | 469b10-13 | 580c7-9 | |||
| Aspiration to awakening through understanding and practice | 17 | (17) Ten Practices of Bodhisattvas | 218c6-7 | 581a19-20 | 280a27-b9 | |
| 18 | 220a23-25 | 581a20-21 | ||||
| 19 | 221b2-3 | 581a22-23 | ||||
| 20 | 222b2 | title | ||||
| 21 | 222c20 | title | ||||
| 23 | 226b16 | title | ||||
| Aspiration to awakening through realization | 32 | (32) Arising from the Original Nature of Jewel King Tathagata | 413a14-17 | 581b23-27 | 281b4-20 | |
| 34 | (34) Entry into the Realm of Reality | 454a7-8 | “論” | |||
Table 3.
The differences between the Tanxuanji and the AFM regarding the three types of minds.
| Three Types of Minds | Tanxuanji | AFM |
|---|---|---|
| straightforward mind | being freed from suffering | thinking about the principle of Thusness |
| profound mind | attaining dharma | willing to practice all good deeds |
| mind of great compassion | taking sentient beings | trying to save all sentient beings from suffering |
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Kim, J. Fazang’s Perspective on the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment 發心: An Examination Through the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 as Cited in the Huayanjing Tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記. Religions 2024, 15, 1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111357
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Kim J. Fazang’s Perspective on the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment 發心: An Examination Through the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 as Cited in the Huayanjing Tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記. Religions. 2024; 15(11):1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111357
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Jiyun. 2024. "Fazang’s Perspective on the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment 發心: An Examination Through the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 as Cited in the Huayanjing Tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記" Religions 15, no. 11: 1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111357
APA StyleKim, J. (2024). Fazang’s Perspective on the Arousal of the Thought of Enlightenment 發心: An Examination Through the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna 大乘起信論 as Cited in the Huayanjing Tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記. Religions, 15(11), 1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111357
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