The Dynamics of Islam in Kazakhstan from an Educational Perspective

Abstract

This article provides a thorough examination of the past evolution and present conditions of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. It commences with an examination of the influence of the Hanafi school within Sunni Islam and traces the evolution of the Islamic educational system throughout various historical periods until the present day. Particular focus is given to blending Islamic teachings with contemporary educational structures. The researchers heuristically analyzed the current state of the field, identified the main problems, and suggested prospects for Islamic education for further development. In this study, the PRISMA methodology is adopted to systematize the literature, enabling a detailed examination of the characteristics and nuances of Islamic education within the historical and cultural traditions of Kazakhstan. The current study utilizes the historical method, which uses primary and secondary data sources. This method prioritizes historical analysis as a means to assess past occurrences. This paper examines the axiological importance of madrasas and Islamic universities, as well as the pedagogical approaches employed in these educational establishments. We have presented infographics that contribute to a detailed understanding of the field. From the heuristic analyses, we formulated practical recommendations for the government designed to enhance the quality and effectiveness of Islamic education. This paper highlights the importance of Islamic education as an important component of the cultural and scientific space of Kazakhstan, offering strategies for its sustainable development in the context of globalization and the transformation of educational systems. The results of this work are of significant interest to academics, madrasas, colleges, and higher education institutions specializing in Islamic education.

1. Introduction

In Kazakhstan, Islam is a predominant religion, with religious education significantly influencing public life. The introduction of Islam into the territory of modern Kazakhstan unfolded over several centuries, beginning in the southern regions. Initially, Islam took root among the settled populations of Semirechye and the Syr Darya by the late tenth century, when it was declared the official religion of the Kara-Khanid Empire (Balapanova and Asan 2012). Islam has had a significant impact on cultural enrichment, both in the Muslim world and in the context of Kazakhstan. An important incentive for scientific research was the creation of large cultural and scientific centers in Central Asia. These centers have become a place of revival, critical rethinking, and adaptation of scientific achievements of past eras.

The spread of Islam in Kazakhstan has followed a complex historical path for centuries, ultimately strengthening the level of education and a sense of Kazakh identity. Islamic education in Kazakhstan tends to expand due to the restoration of traditional Kazakh culture, the return of many lost customs and ancestral rituals, and the appeal to it by broad segments of the population, including young people (Baitenova 2012). Many major universities in the country have opened educational programs in Islamic studies and Islamic theology.

Literary sources indicate many works that combine Islamic education in Central Asia. Notably, (Muratkhan et al. 2021; Nadirova et al. 2016; Seitakhmetova and Bektenova 2018; Zholmukhan et al. 2024) proposed an idea of the traditional methodology of Islamic education in Kazakhstan, the problems and policies shaping it (Alpyspaeva and Abdykarimova 2022; Janguzhiyev and Zhapekova 2022), and its adaptation to the post-secular society. Unfortunately, knowledge is scarce regarding the history, present conditions, and intricacies of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. Additionally, very few articles in this area have analyzed the development of Islamic education in Kazakhstan up to the present and assessed the possibilities for future research. Additionally, Kazakhstan lacks a well-developed and officially approved concept of religious education that distinguishes it from models existing in other countries.

Currently, matters pertaining to education are gaining significant relevance, characterized by the increasing prominence of globalization and cultural diversity. This is especially true for Islamic countries and regions, such as Kazakhstan, where Islamic education plays an important role in the formation of the moral and spiritual values of the population. Islamic education, rooted in deep history, currently faces the need to integrate into modern educational systems to meet current social and cultural challenges.

The problem of “Islam among Kazakhs” for many years has remained an understudied area in the history of Kazakhstan, which can be characterized as a “white spot”. The religious identity of the Kazakh people is most fully manifested in oral history sources, epic, genealogical, sacred, and hagiographic traditions. Access to these sources and their subsequent “legalization” in the scientific community contributed to the beginning with a rethinking and deep analysis of this scientific problem (Utkelbayeva 2019).

Our study aims to provide a thorough analysis of Islamic education in Kazakhstan, improve our understanding of its current state, and propose potential areas for future investigations.

This study emphasizes the need for more investigation into Islamic education in Kazakhstan.

This study’s research questions are as follows:

(1)

What are the significant historical events that have impacted the development of Islamic education in Kazakhstan?

(2)

What is the current state of Islamic education in Kazakhstan, including its institutional structures and educational methodologies?

(3)

What are the primary challenges affecting Islamic education in Kazakhstan, and what strategies are being used to address them?

Our contributions are as follows:

• We conducted comprehensive research on the inception and evolution of Islamic education in Kazakhstan, from its initial emergence to the present day. Using the PRISMA methodology, we performed a systematic review of the literature in this field.
• We organized a historical analysis of Islamic education in Kazakhstan and provided an in-depth examination of the relationship between Islam and education, highlighting its significant impact on the development of Islamic education in Kazakhstan.
• We heuristically investigated the essence and substantiated the axiological significance of madrasas and Islamic universities within the context of Islamic education practices. We analyzed the current state of Islamic education, highlighting the specific characteristics of Islamic education in Kazakhstan and its prospects for development as an integral part of the Islamic culture of the Kazakh people.
• We defined and systematized the fundamental value attitudes in Islamic education. Additionally, we developed a methodological framework for examining the teaching methods used in Islamic educational institutions in Kazakhstan. This framework allows us to assess the integration of modern approaches into traditional religious education.
• We formulated practical recommendations for government institutions, which are designed to enhance the quality and effectiveness of Islamic education in the Republic of Kazakhstan; this is a crucial endeavor that demands an integrated approach.
• We created 12 infographics using methods of analysis and synthesis, which include an analytical examination of Islamic education in Kazakhstan.

Thus, this study expands the academic understanding of Islamic education in Kazakhstan and contributes to the development of strategies for its further growth and integration into the country’s broader educational space.

This article contains six sections. Section 1 is the introduction; Section 2 focuses on the research methodology adopted in the study. Section 3 reviews related work. Section 4 explores Islamic education in Kazakhstan. Section 5 provides a discussion. Finally, Section 6 concludes the article.

2. Research Methodology

This study applied a historical method based on a thorough analysis of primary and secondary sources of information. This qualitative approach focuses on a historical analysis that allows assessing historical events based on the key principles of historical science. These principles include methodical and objective inquiries, appraisals, and evidence synthesis, which help with accurate fact-finding and formulating valid historical judgments.

This research methodology’s general philosophical aspect is intricately linked to the civilizational approach to studying history, particularly in the context of pre-industrial Asia countries, where religions have been attributed to a significant spiritual function. It is also important to consider the concept of Islam’s integrity, emphasizing its pervasive influence on various aspects of society. Within the framework of this approach, the key methods of the analysis and synthesis methods, as well as the method of ascending from the concrete to the abstract, allow for a deeper understanding and interpretation of historical and cultural processes (Utkelbayeva 2019).

In this paper, we began by developing a search string seeking to identify the primary research in the field. For the research questions, we used a search string with relevant keywords. After conducting several test searches, we adjusted some keywords. As a result, a final search string was formed and applied to all scientific databases used. We chose the following search terms: “Islamic Education”, “Religious Education”, “Islam Education”, “Central Asia”, and “Kazakhstan”. The ultimate search query consisted of the terms “Islamic Education”, “Religious Education”, “Islam Education”, and “Kazakhstan”. The relevancy of each item discovered in the search was meticulously assessed based on its title and abstract, keywords, and conclusions. The structure of our search query was devised via the following methodology employing Boolean operators: “OR” and “AND” to link key phrases. The analysis included articles published between 2004 and 2024.

The articles were divided into three categories: (1) articles that precisely matched our topic, (2) articles that were tangentially related to the topic, and (3) items that were fully discarded as irrelevant. The chosen articles subsequently underwent a thorough examination of their complete text, in accordance with our specific criteria for inclusion and exclusion.

We used the PRISMA methodology (Moher et al. 2009) for our study. This methodology consists of three blocks (Figure 1). In the first block, i.e., “Identification” we found and analyzed available articles on Islamic education in Kazakhstan. We analyzed various publication platforms and electronic databases relevant to our study. These include Google Scholar, Scopus, and Springer Link. The search yielded 158 articles as a result. After that, we eliminated 95 articles that did not correspond to the context of the area, as well as seven duplicate articles. Within the second block, which was titled “Screening”, we examined a total of 56 articles. To screen the articles, we developed inclusion and exclusion criteria. Articles that did not meet any of the criteria in a given set were excluded from the review. After that, three articles that were not written in English were removed. In the end, in the third block, we included 51 “included” methodological review articles.

First, we collected the articles selected from our database. A preliminary evaluation of each publication was conducted, and sections deemed suitable for inclusion were incorporated into the review. Next, each article underwent a secondary analysis, including the development of a data extraction form that summarized all results and information derived from the selected articles.

The analysis of the number of studies per year is presented in Figure 2, while the classification of papers is shown in Figure 3. Citations were sourced from Google Scholar, as articles in Kazakh and Russian are not included in the Scopus database.

The research methodology reveals a shortage of studies on Islamic education in Kazakhstan. This situation can be traced back to a number of factors, including political, social, and cultural pressures that have had an impact on research endeavors in Kazakhstan and other post-Soviet countries. Immediately following the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Kazakhstan was confronted with the need to reevaluate and reorganize its identity, notably with regard to the religious component. Islam, which has strong historical roots in the region, became a vital influence in the formation of national identities as a result of historical events. On the other hand, there is still a lack of research on Islamic education prevalent in Kazakhstan. In conclusion, an in-depth investigation is needed to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the current situation of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. Taking this approach will not only provide a greater understanding of the current situation of the subject of study but also aid in developing strategies for enhancing Islamic education in the country.

3. Related Work

This section discusses relevant works on the subject, namely the role and influence of Islamic education on the establishment of cultural identity and national consciousness in Kazakhstan. The construction of cultural identity in Kazakhstan is significantly influenced by Islamic education, which also plays a role in the revitalization of national culture and the growth of national consciousness by facilitating a return to religious origins. This direction becomes especially relevant in the context of strengthening ties with the Muslim world, emphasizing the need for religious education in the country.

Historically, Islamic education played a key role in the spread of Islam among the Kazakh nomadic population which contributed to the increase in education level and the formation of Kazakh identity. During the Russian Empire, policies of assimilation and control over educational institutions provoked resistance from Muslim communities, with long-term consequences for Muslim education. In the early twentieth century, Soviet policies toward Islamic education aimed to strengthen the power of the Bolsheviks and contributed to the growth of the Muslim movement and its development of a network of ethnoreligious educational institutions.

The tradition of honoring the Ulema is a special part of the Islamic theological tradition that developed in the Middle Ages and is still observed today. The proof of this fact is the fact that Muslim law schools are still called by the names of their founders and the order of their work is the same in all countries of the Islamic world. According to the established norm, Sunni madhhabs are always listed not alphabetically, but in the order of seniority of the founding imams: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali. Muslim law had its beginning in Medina, which became the center for solving questions for newly converted Muslims, but later the further spread of law passed to the cities of Iraq: Kufa and Basra, then to Baghdad, which became the largest center of enlightenment in various directions of science and religion. It was in Baghdad that Muslim law was systematized into an independent discipline. Owing to the efforts of Abu Hanifa’s students, the theoretical basis of Hanafi madhhab was developed, which contributed to its spread and approval in various regions of the Muslim world. This was an important contribution to the development of Islamic law, ensuring wide recognition and application of Hanafi legal principles among Muslim communities (Utkelbayeva 2019). The introduction of Islamic educational policy in the Bukei Horde under Zhangir Khan had a significant effect on the development of Jadid reforms in the Crimea of the Russian Empire, with an emphasis on Islamic education in mosque schools. The reforms included the teaching of new trends and ethno-pedagogical values rooted in Islamic culture. Zhangir Khan’s policy aimed at improving the educational system at the state level and maintaining diplomatic relations with Tsarist Russia. This educational direction contributed to the preservation of Kazakh traditions and cultural heritage, opposing the Russification carried out by Tsar Nicholas I (Yerkin 2018). Under the leadership of Zhangir Khan, madrasas on Kazakh soil became key tools in educating young people, integrating Kazakh cultural heritage and ethno-pedagogical values with Islamic culture. This approach promoted the spread of humanitarian and religious education, adhered to the pedagogical principles of prominent philosophers, and fostered education in a religious and patriotic spirit.

In Kazakhstan, after gaining independence and abandoning state atheism in favor of freedom of religion, according to the 1992 law, the formation of a multi-religious environment began. As part of this process, a course in religious studies was introduced in state higher education institutions. This course is integrated into the educational system through disciplines, such as national history, world history, cultural studies, and philosophy, adhering to the principles of secularism, scientific approaches, and interdisciplinarity. However, in the process of implementing these programs, difficulties arise due to the inconsistency of teaching materials, the different qualification levels of teachers, and the lack of national textbooks adapted for different levels of the educational system (Kartabayeva et al. 2015). These factors have shaped the new landscape of religious education in the country.

Like other post-Soviet countries, Kazakhstan experienced a spiritual vacuum following the transition from religious prohibition to religious freedom. As a consequence, there was a rise in the number of religious groups and denominations, as well as the birth of radical movements. In post-Soviet countries, interest in religious traditions increased against the background of sociocultural changes after the collapse of the USSR. Kazakhstan’s openness to the world facilitated the free entry of missionaries and the departure of citizens for religious education. Liberal legislation in the early 2000s reinforced this need for religious education, especially Islamic education, given the Muslim majority of the population (Mustafayeva 2023).

In the historiography of Kazakhstan, considerable attention has been given to the study of the process of the spread of Islam and its influence on the historical development of the Kazakh people. This problem became especially relevant after the end of the Soviet period. During the Soviet era, from the 1920s until the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the prevailing ideology of atheism and anti-Islamic attitudes significantly limited the opportunities for a deep and unbiased analysis of the role of Islam in the history and culture of Kazakhs. These conditions prevented the development of an objective scientific assessment of the influence of Islamic traditions on sociocultural processes in Kazakh society (Nurtazina 2021).

Islamic educational institutions are crucial for training local Islamic scholars and spiritual leaders. Insufficient access to Islamic education not only hampers the promotion of mainstream teachings but also heightens the risk of radical groups, supported from abroad, recruiting uninformed Kazakh youth (Achilov 2015). This highlights the dynamics and consequences of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. Islamic education in Kazakhstan has gone through significant historical and cultural transformations. Islam, spreading among Nomadic Kazakh communities, has contributed to the increasing educational levels and the formation of national identity (Muratkhan et al. 2021). The methodology of Islamic education in the region is traditional and conservative, emphasizing spiritual and cultural aspects, which makes change a complicated process (Nadirova et al. 2016). In addition, Central Asia (Doolotkeldieva 2020; Peshkova 2014) has developed a form of Islam that emerged from the interaction of Islamic teachings with tribal legal systems, traditional norms, and elements of Tengrianism and Zoroastrianism (Yemelianova 2017). This interaction gave rise to specific trajectories of Islam’s development in post-Soviet Central Asia, which differ from classical approaches.

The study of Islamic education in an international context aims to comprehend its fundamental meanings and to realize these meanings within the current sociocultural and political context. Researchers such as Waghid (2014), E. Hilgendorf (2003), and others analyze this phenomenon in the context of the globalization of educational processes. The concern of scholars about the future of Islamic education is related to general problems of Islam and Islamic values, which have thoroughly been studied in the works of (Badagulova 2017; Mustafayeva 2023; Utkelbayeva 2019) and others. This problem is also relevant today, as Islamic education plays a key role in the individuality formation, society, and worldview paradigms.

4. Islamic Education in Kazakhstan

This section offers a historical overview of Islamic education in Kazakhstan from the 7th to the 9th centuries up to the present. It highlights prominent scholars of theology in Central Asia and Kazakhstan, examines the current state of Islamic education, and explores the pedagogical aspects of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. Additionally, it discusses the future prospects of Islamic education and provides specific recommendations for improving the system in Kazakhstan.

4.1. Historical Overview of Islamic Education in Kazakhstan

In this study, the content analysis method was used. The analysis was conducted by systematically presenting, interpreting, and explaining (synthesizing) the content of the data to formulate answers to the research questions posed. The thematic–chronological approach allows the topic to be examined in a historical sequence, through a wide range of issues related to the development of Islamic education.

The Islamic education system was originally formed around the process of reading and memorizing individual Ayats and Surahs of the Qur’an. Scholars with knowledge of the Holy Scriptures gathered students in mosques and taught them the skills of reading and writing, using the texts of the holy book as a foundation. These classes served as the first educational institutions in the Islamic world for several centuries. The gradual development of scientific and educational institutions was necessitated by the need to interpret the Qur’an and Hadiths, formulate religious law, establish jurisprudential schools (madhabs), and study the tenets of the creed. This contributed to the emergence of educational centers in the form of madrasas and universities in the major centers of Muslim theology (Zarrinkub 2004).

Before the spread of Islam, there was no sustainable education system in Kazakhstan, except for a few medieval towns. The educational programs in these madrasas were aimed not only at studying theology but also at mastering mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature, which indicates the presence of an integrated approach to education. Works of such scholars as Yusuf Balasaguni with his “Kutadgu bilig” and Mahmud Kashgari (Ivanova 2017) with “Kitab lugat at-turk” reflect the high level of cultural and scientific development characteristic of the Muslim Renaissance of that period.

The study of the process of Islamic education becoming institutionalized is a difficult endeavor that calls for the use of profound theoretical perspectives as well as the development of new methodological frameworks, which may include nonlinear and postmodern approaches. “Maktabs” are elementary schools that were formed in mosques and provide basic education, including instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and fundamentals of Shariah. Historically, the educational system in the Islamic world began with it. These schools were known as “maktabs”. Following the completion of their education at the maktab, students have the opportunity to continue their studies in madrasas, which are more advanced educational institutions that are frequently associated with mosques. Some examples of madrasas include Al-Azhar in Cairo and Al-Qaraouin in Fez.

During the Seljuk period, an extensive network of madrasas was established, which can be considered prototypes of modern universities. Upon completion of their studies in madrasas, students received an ijazah—a license confirming their right to teach, which signified the full completion of the curriculum. In the modern Islamic world, this practice has survived only among some scholar-teachers.

Notably, the process of the formation of traditional Muslim society in Central Asia was centuries long and gradual. Historically, the beginning of this process was associated with the advance of Arab armies into the region in the second half of the 7th century, during the reign of the first caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (660–680). One of the key moments in the history of contact between Muslims and Turkic peoples was the Battle of Talas in 751. In this battle, which took place between the troops of the Arab Caliphate moving along the southern route of the Silk Road and the army of the Chinese Tang Empire, Turks took the side of Muslims and played a decisive role in defeating Chinese troops. This event represented a significant stage in the spread of Islam in the region (Islam in Kazakhstan n.d.).

This history illustrates how Islamic education in Kazakhstan has adapted and developed in response to social, political, and cultural changes in the country.

The history of Islamic education in Kazakhstan is closely linked to the history of the country and the development of Islam in the region. A brief overview of the key stages of this history.

4.1.1. Early Period

The seventh through ninth centuries witnessed the beginning of the spread of Islam throughout Central Asia, including the land that is now Kazakhstan, through the use of trade routes and invasion. It was at this time that the first mosques and other places of worship were constructed. The seventh and eighth centuries witnessed the beginning of the spread of Islam throughout Central Asia and Kazakhstan. It was in the 670s when the first Arab missionaries arrived in this region. The beginning of the eighth century witnessed an increase in the amount of missionary work that was being done in the area (Abuov 1997).

The final establishment of Islam occurred in the middle of the VIII century. In 751 near the town of Atlakh, not far from Taraz, a major battle took place between the Arab commander Ziyad ibn Salih and the Chinese commander Gao Xianzhi. The important moment of the battle came when the Karluk tribes rebelled and defeated the Chinese troops. This event marked the beginning of the establishment of Islam and Muslim culture in Central Asia (Isakhan and Satybaldieva 2021).

The first Islamic missionaries began their activities in the region in the context of the Battle of Talas in 751. During this conflict between the forces of the Arab Caliphate advancing along the southern route of the Silk Road and the armies of the Chinese Tang Empire, Turkic tribes sided with Arabs and played a key role in defeating the Chinese forces. This event strengthened the Muslim presence in Maverannahr, a key region where trade routes from China, India, the Middle East, Siberia, and Northern Europe intersected. In his work “Turkestan in the Age of the Mongol Invasion”, the author noted that after the Battle of Atlakh, Turks began to gradually accept Islam, which indicated the significant influence of this event on the religious map of the region (Bartold 1963).

In the context of Muslim ideology and culture, an interesting phenomenon, which can be characterized as a revitalization of the values and elements of the pre-Islamic culture of the ancient Turks, has taken place. This process has led to the formation of a cultural phenomenon known as the “Turkic Renaissance”. This phenomenon implies the revival and integration of traditional ancient Turkic elements into modern cultural and ideological contexts within the Muslim world (Karimov 2021). During this period, the first Muslim states of Turkic origin were founded: the Volga Bulgaria in 921, the Kara-Khanid state in 945, the Ghaznavid state in 963, and the Seljuk state in 1038.

Islam began to penetrate southern sedentary areas of modern Kazakhstan in the early 10th century. In the IX century, as a result of the conquests of the Samanids, the Islamization of the Turkic tribes of the Karluks took place. By the end of the X century, Islam strengthened among the sedentary population of Semirechye and in the Syr Darya basin. During the reign of the Kara-Khanid (Kylychev 2016) dynasty (999–1212), Islam was accepted as the state religion. The founder of the Kara-Khanid dynasty, Satuk, accepted Islam at the beginning of the X century, and his son Bogra Khan Harun Musa officially proclaimed Islam as the state religion in 960 (Shagirbayev et al. 2015).

The first Turkic ruler who made Islam the official religion of his state was Abdul-Karim Satuk Bogra Khan, the founder of Kara-Khanid power in Central Asia, who ruled in 901–955 (Nurtazina 2011).

Historical data indicate the peaceful nature of Islamization in the region. The Great Silk Road, which passed through this territory, facilitated the interaction of many religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, as well as traditional Tengriism among the Turkic peoples of the steppes. Islam was introduced into local society without violence and oppression, and its adoption was voluntary among various segments of the population (Plotnikov 2020).

The activity of Arab missionaries, who promoted Islam through persuasion and personal example, is still regarded as a model for religious education. Islamic ideals were reinforced in Central Asia through good deeds, which contributed to the integration of the indigenous population into the Muslim world. The affirmation of Islamic values had a significant impact on attracting the peoples of the region to the humanistic traditions of this world religion (Beloglazov 2013).

Islam has had a significant effect on cultural development, contributing to the establishment of cultural, spiritual, and scientific ties between the region and the countries of the Near and Middle East. These intercultural contacts formed the basis for the intellectual and artistic flourishing known as the Muslim Renaissance, which covers the period from the ninth to the twelfth centuries in the Arab-Islamic world. Scientists in the Muslim world made significant contributions to the development of scientific disciplines such as algebra, trigonometry, physics, optics, and astronomy (Kadyrov 2020). Especially outstanding achievements were made in astronomy, which has important practical significance for determining the direction to Mecca and calculations related to the lunar calendar.

In the field of medicine, the Muslim East was far ahead of Europe in the Middle Ages. The key achievements of Arab medicine were systematized in the “Canon of Medicine” by Abu Ali ibn Sina (Oblokulov et al. 2020), also known as Avicenna.

Medieval Eastern philosophy had a powerful impact on the development of classical Muslim science and culture in Central Asia. Among outstanding scientists and philosophers of this period, thinkers were Al-Farabi, Zhusup Balasaguni, Mahmud Kashgari, and Muhammad Haydar Dulati (Abdugulova et al. 2012).

4.1.2. Golden Horde

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13–15th Centuries: In the early 13th century, the spread of Islam in Central Asia and Kazakhstan was slowed by the Mongol conquest, which led to the migration of new ethnic groups, including various Turkic and Mongol tribes adhering to traditional religions. The Mongol invasion led to the destruction of many cities, scientific and cultural centers, as well as mosques and madrasas, which caused significant damage to the trade routes of the Great Silk Road.

The purposeful spread of Islam among nomadic peoples began during the reign of Golden Horde Khan Berke (1257–1267) and was further developed under Uzbek Khan (1312–1341) (Kramarovsky 2016). The strengthening of the positions of Islam in the XIV century also connects with the board of Amir Timur (1370–1405) (Alekseev 2008), during which in the territory of Kazakhstan significant theological centers in the Hanafi direction began to form. Khoja Ahmet Yassawi, the founder of the Turkic branch of Sufism (Baitenova 2012), played an important role in the spread of Islam among the nomadic Turkic population of South Kazakhstan. In honor of Khoja Ahmet Yassawi, by order of Amir Timur, a mausoleum was erected (Alsabekov 2013), and it became an outstanding monument of Muslim architecture in Kazakhstan.

From the end of the 13th century, some of the Chingizids of the Golden Horde, especially in Ulus Dzhuchi (Izmailov 2012), adopted Sunni Islam of the Hanafi madhhab and actively defended the religion against the influence of Lamaism and Buddhism. Muslim Türks began to identify themselves as “Nogaili” in honor of the Chingizid Nogai (Yarlykapov 2008), who fought against the Buddhist Khan Tokhta.

In the 15th century, one of the rival groups of Chingizid Muslims (Urusids) began to use the term “Kazakhs”, thus denoting arbitrary pretenders to power. Missionaries from Turkestan, Maverannahr, Haji-Tarkhan, Derbent, Khorezm, Khiva, Astrabad, Khorasan, and Iran were leaders of Islam during this time period (Mustafina 2010). Missionaries from these regions were responsible for this.

Over time, however, local cultural and spiritual traditions were revitalized. The Mongol conquerors, including their ruling elite, embraced Islam and adopted the use of the Turkic language, which contributed to the further spread of Islam among the nomadic peoples of the steppe. The Mongol rulers showed religious tolerance without imposing their religious views on Muslims. The position of Islam was strengthened after the Golden Horde, under the leadership of Khan Berke (1255–1266), adopted Islam, and thanks to subsequent rulers such as Tudemeng and Uzbek. For example, under the Khan Uzbek (1312–1342), there were already 13 mosques in the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Saray, and the Khan himself observed the five-fold prayer (Iskhakov 2019; Zhitenev 2010).

In the post-Mongol period in large states covering the territory of modern Kazakhstan, such as the Golden Horde, Ak Horde, and Mogulistan, the process of Islamization occurred unevenly. The conquerors gradually integrated into the local Turkic environment and accepted Islam, which led to the formation of an elite layer of Turkic-Mongol nobility.

4.1.3. Kazakh Khanate

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The 15–18th centuries: During the Kazakh Khanate period, Islamic education continued to evolve. The establishment of madrasas became increasingly common; these institutions educated not only future religious leaders but also representatives of the secular elite. The foundation of a state on the land that is now Kazakhstan was significantly influenced by Islam over a period spanning from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries.

During the period from XV to XVIII, Islam played a key role in the formation of statehood in the territory of modern Kazakhstan. Its founders, Sultans Zhanibek and Kerey, consolidated the official recognition of Islam as an ideology of the Kazakh Khanate in the XV century. The formation of Kazakh national identity was accompanied by the strengthening of the khans’ power and the integration of various Kazakh tribes into a single ethnic community. This unification was supported by the introduction of Islamic norms and values (Sarsembayev 2015).

Most of the inhabitants of the Kazakh Khanate professed Sunni Islam according to the Hanafi madhhab, but in public and private life there was a unique synthesis of Islamic teachings with elements of Tengrianism and shamanism (Ayagan et al. 2014). This feature of cultural syncretism reflected deeply rooted local traditions and beliefs.

From the very beginning of its existence, Kazakh statehood was based on Muslim legal principles, which is confirmed by the adherence of all Kazakh khans, from Kerey and Zhanibek to Kenesary, the last all-Kazakh khan, to the norms of Shariah. Sharia had a significant influence on the Steppe codes of state law, particularly on the laws adopted by Kasym Khan and Esim Khan (Erpay et al. 2014).

Of particular importance in the process of integrating Islam into the public and legal sphere was the name of the law “Zheti Zhargy”, approved by Khan Tauke in approximately 1718. This document, which included norms of administrative, criminal, and civil law, was largely based on the provisions of Sharia and emphasized the state support of the Muslim religion (Shaikemelev 2010; Utyusheva 2022).

4.1.4. Russian Empire

A certain weakening of the pace and forms of Islamization was associated with the accession of Kazakhstan to the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries (Duishembieva 2020; Rysbekova et al. 2018; Zhapekova et al. 2018). The loss of political independence led to khans and Sultans losing their leading role in society (Murzakhodzhayev and Tulibayeva 2018; Shapoval and Lipina 2023). Following this, the influence of the Muslim clergy, especially the Ishans, the traditional Sufi authorities, declined (Ayagan et al. 2014).

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The 19th Century: During the Russian colonization of Kazakhstan, Islamic education faced pressure as Tsarist authorities sought to integrate the region into the secular framework of the empire. Many madrasas were closed or restricted in their activities (Alpyspaeva and Abdykarimova 2022).

The Islamization of Kazakhstan, which became part of the Russian Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, was significantly influenced by Russia’s attitude toward Islam. During the initial period of colonization, Russian authorities attempted to introduce Christianity among the nomads. However, without success, they began to support the spread of Islam, controlling it through Tatar mullahs and the Russian clergy. The policy of forcibly resettling Russians in northern Kazakhstan contributed to the strengthening of Islam in the region. The great Kazakh scientist Ch. Valikhanov, who criticized the policy of the Tsarist government and some Muslim traditions, proposed in his work On Muslimism in the Steppe (Imanjusip and Rystan 2019). The growth of the Russian population in the steppes, including the northern regions, led to the division of Kazakhstan into southern and northern parts. By the early 20th century, adherence to Islam was perceived by Russia as a threat to its colonial policy. In 1906, the first Kurultai of Muslims of the Turkestan region was held in Verny, which emphasized the need for the establishment of a Muslim religious community and the election of clergy by the people, as well as issues of education and religious infrastructure.

4.1.5. Soviet Period

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The 20th Century: With the advent of Soviet rule, Islamic education was severely secularized. Religious schools were closed and religious practice was restricted. However, at the end of the Soviet period, a process of revitalizing religious life began (Bigozhin 2022). This period was characterized by the atheistic policy of the state. In the period 1917–1929, as the author (Arapov 2011) showed, there was relative freedom in the attitude of the Soviet leadership toward Islam. From 1917 to 1923 in Russia, there was an active process of displacement of Christianity, within which militant atheism began to occupy an important place in religious policy. In (Ahmadullin 2022), French researchers Bennigsen and Lemercier-Lelkege (1981) noted that after a civil war characterized by aggressive actions against religious institutions, the Soviet government adopted a policy of relative tolerance toward Islamic institutions, avoiding confrontations for several decades.

In September 1920, the Central Spiritual Board of Muslims of European Russia, Siberia, and Kazakhstan were established (Yunusova 2017). The 1920s were marked by the intensification of religious life in Kazakh society. By 1924, several dozen madrassas were functioning in the republic, mosques were being built, and a Sharia court was functioning. In 1923, at the II All-Russian Congress of Muslims in Ufa, the Kazakh branch (Kaziyat) was included in the Central Spiritual Board of Muslims of Inner Russia and Siberia. Over time, the Muslim clergy in the person of the Kaziyat came under the control of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, created in 1943 with the center in Tashkent (Bobrovnikov 2007).

From 1929 to 1941, there was a period of tightening anti-religious struggle, when the policy of partial liberalization, known as the “religious nepe” (Alpyspaeva and Zhuman 2022), was curtailed. Agitation and propaganda against religion gradually gave way to open struggle against religious organizations and repression against believers. The “Godless Five-Year Plan” was the name given to the period of time that lasted from 1932–1937. Nevertheless, the implementation of these regulations did not result in the elimination of Islam from the public settings. There was a significant level of religiosity among the population of Kazakhstan, according to studies that were carried out in the late 1980s. The percentage of believers and sympathizers varied from 20 to 70 percent in different regions of the Republic. During the period of Soviet rule, 1917–1991, Islam (Kemper et al. 2010) in the USSR underwent significant changes under the influence of state policy. State control and repressive measures of the totalitarian regime contributed to the processes that can be characterized as “de-Muslimization” of the population (Smagulov et al. 2023). Within the framework of atheistic ideology, which was actively promoted in society, there was a closure of religious educational institutions, such as madrassas, and mosques. Traditions with religious overtones were criticized and stigmatized, and the celebration of religious holidays was prohibited (Knysh et al. 2019).

The number of believers making pilgrimages declined, and atheistic views became more widespread. In general, there was an increase in the number of people with indifference to religion. These changes reflect the complex dynamics of the relationship between the state and religion under Soviet rule, where religion was seen as incompatible with the ideological attitudes of the communist regime.

4.1.6. Independent Kazakhstan

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From 1991 onward: After Kazakhstan gained independence, an active restoration of Islamic education began (Podoprigora 2020). New madrassas and Islamic universities were opened, and active construction of mosques began.

Kazakhstan is experiencing a phenomenon that is often described as an “Islamic revival”, which manifests itself in an increased interest in Islam among the population. The constitution of the country provides every citizen with freedom of conscience and prohibits any form of discrimination on religious, ethnic, or other grounds. In accordance with these constitutional principles, the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Religious Activities and Religious Associations” was adopted in 2011 (Committee on Religious Affairs of the Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan n.d.), which serves as the legal basis for the realization of the right to freedom of conscience. This right includes the ability of every citizen to independently choose his or her spiritual values.

Kazakhstan’s legislation complies with international standards of religious freedom approved by organizations such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (Khatiev 2023). This legislation allows religious services, rituals, and gatherings to be freely conducted in mosques, places of worship, religious institutions, cemeteries, and other public places.

In the years following the fall of the Soviet Union (Bektenova 2017), particularly after the country gained freedom, Islam considerably strengthened its position in Kazakhstan, becoming a strong social force. The first day of the Muslim holiday known as Kurban Ait has been recognized as an official holiday by the state since 2006. This is done to highlight the importance of Islam in the cultural and social life of the nation.

In modern Kazakhstan, there are many Islamic educational institutions (Kemper et al. 2010), which integrate traditional religious teachings with modern educational methods. The state policy in this area is aimed at regulating the activities of religious educational institutions in order to ensure a balance between religious and secular education. This reflects the desire of the Kazakhstani authorities to maintain harmony and mutual understanding among multiple ethnicities in a multi-confessional society.

According to the data, the independent Spiritual Board of Muslims of Kazakhstan was established as a result of the first Kurultai of Muslims of Kazakhstan, held on January 12, 1990. Ratbek Nysanbayev was elected as the first chairperson and Supreme Mufti of this organization. The executive body of the organization, the Muftiyat, under the leadership of the Supreme Mufti, coordinates the activities of Muslims in Kazakhstan. The structure of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK) includes several key components: the Collegiate Council, the Council of Patrons, the Presidium of the SAMK, the Chief of Staff, and various sectors and departments; they deal with religion, Shariah and fatwas, mosque management, international relations and protocol, Hajj organization, preaching, education and science, standardization of halal products, youth affairs, press services, internet propaganda, and overall management of the SAMK apparatus (The Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan 2020).

In the years after the country gained independence (Morrison 2014), several difficulties (Khasanov et al. 2022) have surfaced in relation to Islamic education. These difficulties are associated with the incorporation of secular and Islamic knowledge into the educational programs offered by higher education institutions. These problems highlight the necessity of developing models that promote the synthesis of many types of knowledge and foster connections that are mutually beneficial within the context of a secular society.

4.2. Scholar Theologians of Central Asia and Kazakhstan

This section analyzes the contributions of prominent theologians of medieval Central Asia and Kazakhstan to the development of Islamic sciences. The study identified the names and analyzed the scientific achievements of Kazakh scholars who held the highest positions in the hierarchy of jurist-legal scholars (faqihs) in the theological–legal school of Abu Hanifa. These scientists lived in the periods of Kara-Khanid, Chagataid, and the Golden Horde rule (Dadin 2021). Their works, which have survived to this day, are of considerable interest in the study of the history of traditional Islam.

The works of these scholars were recognized as canonical texts by the subsequent authorities of the Abu Hanifa School, which contributed to their active use in medieval Islamic legal proceedings and the system of confessional education in the Muslim world. The scientific trends identified by these theologians continue to attract the attention of modern researchers. This study emphasized the significant role of Kazakhstani scholar-theologians in the development of Islamic civilization (Muminov 2018a). In the context of studying the contribution of Central Asia to the development of Islamic sciences, it should be emphasized that out of the total number of 50 mujtahids, a significant proportion, namely 26 scholars, are from this region. This emphasizes the important role of Central Asia in the formation of Islamic scholarship and jurisprudence.

Scholarly theologians of Central Asia include the following:

• Ahmad al-’Attabi (d. 586/1190);
• Fakhr al-Din Qadihan al-Uzgandi (d. 592/1196);
• Abu ’Ali ibn Sina (d. 427/1037);
• Abu’l-Barakat al-Nasafi (d. 710/1310–1311);
• Shams al-A’imma al-Khalwani (d. 448/1056–1057);
• Abu Zayd al-Dabusi (d. 430/1038–1039);
• Sadr ash-Shari’a (d. 747/1346);
• Fakhr al-Islam al-Pazdawi (d. 482/1089);
• Burhan al-Din al-Marginani (d. 593/1197);
• al-Sadr al-Shahid (d. 536/1141);
• ’Umar al-Habbazi al-Hujandi (d. 691/1292);
• ’Abd al-’Aziz al-Bukhari (d. 730/1330);
• Abu’l-Fadl al-Kirmani (d. 543/1148–1149);
• Shams al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi (d. 481/1087–1088);
• Abu’l-’Ala’ al-Zahid al-Bukhari (d. 546/1151);
• al-Burhan al-Nasafi (d. 787/1386);
• Radi al-Din al-Sarakhsi (d. 544/1149–1150);
• Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 333/944–945);
• Abu’l-Yusr al-Pazdawi (d. 493/1100);
• Husam al-Din al-Ahsikati (d. 644/1247);
• Jarallah al-Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144);
• ’Ali al-Isbijabi (d. 480/1087–1088);
• Siraj al-Din al-Saqqaqi (d. 626/1229);
• Husam al-Din al-Signaki al-Yasawi (d. between 1311–1315);
• Amir Katib al-Itqani al-Farabi (d. 758/1357);
• Mansur al-Qa’ani (d. 775/1373–1374).

The personalities on this list have made significant contributions to Islamic science, philosophy, medicine, and law. The most prominent figures are as follows:

• Abu ’Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna)—one of the most famous and influential scholar-philosophers of the Middle Ages, whose works had a tremendous impact on European and world medicine;
• Abu Mansur al-Maturidi—the founder of the Maturidite school in Sunni Islam, which played a key role in shaping the theological foundations of faith.
• Jarallah al-Zamakhshari—a renowned Islamic scholar who wrote many works on grammar, theology, and the interpretation of the Qur’an.
• Burhan al-Din al-Marginani—author of Hidayah, one of the most important and influential works in Islamic law by the Hanafi school.
• Abu’l-Barakat al-Nasafi and al-Burhan al-Nasafi—both made significant contributions to Islamic jurisprudence and theology.
• Shams al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi—known for his works on Islamic law, especially in the field of commercial and criminal law.

The first representative of Kazakhstan, ’Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Isma’il al-Isbijabi (born 7 Jumada I 454/1062, d. in Samarkand 23 zu’l-qa’dah 535/30 June 1141), was a Hanafi theologian (faqih), mujtahid, who held the post of shaykh al-Islam under the Kara-Khanids in Samarkand. ‘Ala’ al-Din al-Isbijabi was born in Isfijab, studied under local theologians, and developed as a scholar in his hometown. As part of the Qarakhanids’ religious policy of employing non-native theologians in spiritual positions, he was invited to their capital. In competition with local theologians for authority in the eyes of the townspeople, he gained recognition by commenting on the “Mukhtasar at-Tahawi” by Abu Ja’far at-Tahawi (d. 321/933) (Sagdiev 2015). In this work, ’Ali ibn Muhammad al-Isfijabi (Ilesbekov et al. 2020) continued the traditions of the Isfijabi theologians ’Ali ibn Abi Bakr and Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Mansur al-Zafari al-Isfijabi (d. 484/1091). The achievements of his work can be considered to be:

• Skillful use and dissemination of the traditions of the Egyptian school of the Hanafi madhhab;
• Expansion of provisions on civil relations (mu’amalat) and trade transactions (buyu’), achieved by reducing the section of the work on “Ritual” (’ibadat);
• Capturing and preserving the many aspects of local economic, social, and cultural life for historical record;
• Introducing and developing a comparative examination of the provisions of the Hanafi and Shafi’ite theological and legal schools.

It is generally agreed that the Sharh Mukhtasar al-Tahawi, which was written by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Isfijabi, is one of the earliest examples of the genre of comparative law, also known as fiqh muqaran. Both Amir Katib al-Itqani al-Farabi (Kairbekov 2015) (who passed away in 758/1357) and Ibn Kamal Pasha (who passed away in 940/1534) regarded him as a scholar who had attained the level of “mujtahid”. As the results of a comparative study show, “Bada’i’ as-sana’i’ fi tartib ash-shara’i”’ by ’Ala’ al-Din al-Qasani (d. 587/1191) is essentially a reworking of ’Ali ibn Muhammad al-Isfijabi’s work. Among his other followers are Abu Sa’d al-Sam’ani (d. 188/1191), Burhan al-Din al-Masani (d. 587/1191) and Burhan al-Din al-Marginani. Two other representatives of Kazakhstan are as-Signaki and al-Itqani. These two scholars represent the region of the middle reaches of the Syr Darya River. After the Mongol period, the economic importance of this region increased. If earlier trade routes from the east went to Baghdad, then they went in the opposite direction—from Baghdad and Khorasan to Karakorum through South Kazakhstan cities.

Natives of Kayalyk, Emel, Sulkhan, Taraz, Otrar, Farab, Turkistan, Itkan, Karasman, Sauran, Siganak, Zhent, etc., left a deep mark on the history of the science of Islam. Husam al-Din al-Signaki al-Yasawi (Utkelbayeva 2019) (d. between 711 and 714/1311 and 1315) has the authority of an impeccable transmitter of the authoritative texts of the Hanafi madhhab. In addition, he enriched these texts with his commentaries. As a result, “Kitab al-Hidaya” and “at-Tamhid”, two texts on the methodology of the law, were studied together with his commentaries (shurukh). Amir Katib al-Itqani al-Farabi (d. 758/1357) is equally renowned for transmitting and commenting on “Kitab al-Hidaya” and “al-Muntahab fi usul al-mazhab” by Husam al-Din al-Ahsikati (Muminov 2018b).

The medieval scholar Theologians of Kazakhstan were also honored by the country with their works on the Holy Quran and Tafsir, Shariah, Mazhab, Aqeeda, and Fiqh. Scientists from Aral, Sayram, Otyrar, Turkestan, Taraz, Syganak, Balasagun.

Scientists Theologians of Kazakhstan (Figure 4):

• Burhan al-Din Ahmad al-Farabi (unknown–1174);
• Imad ad-Din Abu-l Qasim al-Farabi (1130–1210).

Fiqh:

• Kauam ad-Din al-Farabi (1226–1358);
• abd al-Fafur al Kerderi (unknown–1166)/Muhammad al-Kerderi (1116–1167);
• Hafiz ad-Din al-Kerderi (-)/Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Bazzazi (1357–1424);
• Maula Muhammed al-Farabi (1320–unknown).

Aqida:

• Molla Ahmet al-Zhendi (-);
• Husam ad-Din al-Hussein as-Syghanaqi (unknown–1310);
• Akhmat al-Ispijabi (unknown– 1087);
• Muhammad ad-Din Bin Hibatullah at-Turkistani (unknown–1367).

Narrator of the hadith:

• russianӘbu ’Abd Allah əl-Balasaguni (1040/50–1112);

Sufi doctrine:

• Kozha Ahmet Yasawi (1093–1103–1166).

Regional scholarly institutions that have emerged and flourished in different corners of the Muslim world play a key role in the global scholarly community for the study of the legacy of the Hanafi religious–legal school and Islamic law (fiqh) in general. In particular, the Central Asian scholarly school occupied a leading position in the Hanafi cultural context in the period from the 3rd to the 8th/IXth centuries. In its centers, various aspects of Islamic laws were actively developed and improved, significant scientific works, textbooks, and methodological manuals were created, and a system of confessional education functioned.

Since the establishment of Islam in the Kazakh steppe along with mosques and madrassas that were built, madrassas were major Muslim centers because of their geographical locations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Figure 5 shows a detailed map of Kazakhstan, focusing on madrassas in different regions and cities of the country. Not only have madrasas traditionally acted as places of worship, but they have also been institutions of learning in a broad variety of fields, including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. This has allowed them to contribute to the preservation and transmission of knowledge. In terms of architecture, madrasas are distinguished by a high degree of execution, which includes the incorporation of intricate ornamental features. As a result, they are not only educational institutions but they are also sites of cultural heritage (Achilov 2012). In addition, madrasas fulfilled important social functions, serving as places for public gatherings and discussions. They also played a key role in preserving the language, literature, and cultural traditions of the region, often serving as repositories of historical documents and books.

Figure 6 covers the period from 2007 to 2012, during which nine madrasas were opened in nine regions of Kazakhstan, contributing to the development of religious literacy at a new pace. In 2007, the “Astana Madrasa” and “Shymkent Madrasa” were established, followed by the “Shamalgan Madrasa” in the Almaty region, the “Oral Madrasa”, the “Aktobe Madrasa”, and the “Abu Bakir Syddyk Madrasa” in Pavlodar in 2008. In 2009, a madrasa was opened in Almaty. In 2010, the “Abu Hanifa Madrasa” was founded in the Saryagash district of the Turkestan region, and in 2012, the “Saryagash Madrasa” and the “Hibatullah Tarazi Madrasa” were established in Taraz city (Serikbay 2018).

Figure 7 shows that since the 2015–2016 academic year, madrasas have been granted colleges. Madrasas in the cities of Saryagash, Shymkent, Almaty, and Aktobe were the first to receive licenses. All the madrasas and colleges have a state license allowing them to train students in the specialties “0112000—Islamic Studies”, and “0112013—Imam Khatib”. The terms of study are 2 years and 10 months and 3 years and 10 months, respectively. Graduates of colleges (madrasas) receive diplomas in technical and secondary education.

In Kazakhstan and other regions of Central Asia, madrasas reflect not only Islamic educational tradition, but also the historical interaction between different cultures and empires, such as Persian, Mongolian, and Russian. The presence of these institutions on the map emphasizes their importance in the historical and cultural narrative of Kazakhstan, confirming the role of the region as a significant center of learning and cultural exchange in Central Asia (Baygaraev 2016; Sabyrgaliyeva 2022; Seidmukhammed et al. 2020).

4.3. Current Status of Islamic Education in Kazakhstan

Currently, the training of religious specialists is conducted at the university level, as well as through courses, madrasas, and the Imam Training Institute—these are registered spiritual (religious) educational organizations in the Republic of Kazakhstan. As of the first quarter of 2023 (as seen in Figure 8), these include nine madrasas, one university, two institutes, and two religious seminaries (Committee on Religious Affairs of the Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan n.d.). In addition, due to the high popularity of madrasas among the population, it is not possible to accommodate all those wishing to study there (Zengin and Badagulova 2017). In this context, it is necessary to open religious educational institutions in all regions and large cities (Shapoval and Bekmaganbetova 2021). These institutions, after all, promote knowledge of the traditional Hanafi school among the people of Kazakhstan (Van Bruinessen 2012). Currently, the system of Islamic education in the country operates in seven directions, as follows:

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Courses in religious literacy and memorization of Quranic Suras at mosques;

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Preparatory courses designed by applicants to religious educational institutions;

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Charitable institutions providing religious education;

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Training centers for elders that teach the recitation of Suras of the Qur’an on a professional level;

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Madrasas (colleges);

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Higher education institutions and educational institutions providing religious education after higher education;

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An institute for improving the knowledge and qualifications of imams.

Currently in the Republic of Kazakhstan, training specialists in “Religious studies”, “Islamic studies”, and “Theology” is carried out based on eight higher educational institutions of the country (Sectoral Qualifications Framework for Religious Studies n.d.). Key factors contributing to the revitalization of Islam education in Kazakhstan include:

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Emancipation of religious consciousness, which led to the revival of traditional culture and strengthening of moral values.

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Increased activity of religious associations, reflecting the growth of religious identity, especially among young people.

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Influence of illegal religious groups, causing a response from authorities in the form of increased religious education.

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Politicization of religious activity, expanding the influence of religion on politics, culture, and education.

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Changes in ideological and spiritual values, contributing to the growth of religious values consciousness in society (Nadirova et al. 2016).

The first Islamic educational institution in Kazakhstan was the Egyptian University of Islamic Culture, Nur-Mubarak. After the establishment of this university, Islamic education in Kazakhstan transitioned to a more systemic approach. Following years of development, Islamic studies became a recognized academic specialty, officially registered in 2011. Initially, this specialty was offered only at the undergraduate level, starting in 2008 to meet societal and academic demand, and expanded to include doctoral studies in 2012.

Currently, the training of religious specialists is carried out at the university level under the guidance of courses, madrassas, and the Imam Training Institute, which are registered spiritual (religious) educational organizations in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The most popular universities for education in the field of religion are the Egyptian University of Islamic Culture “Nur-Mubarak”, the International H.A. Yasawi Kazakh-Turkish University, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, and Eurasian National University.

In 2023, the total number of graduates in these specialties reached 514, including 428 bachelors, 73 master’s degrees, and 13 PhDs (Figure 8). The distribution of graduates by specialty is as follows: religious studies—186 people; Islamic studies—45 people; and theology—83 people. Notably, the number of graduates in the specialties of Islamic studies and theology is four times greater than the number of graduates in the specialties of religious studies. In addition, within Islamic studies, bachelor’s training is predominant compared with master’s and doctoral training, which may affect the level of scientific research in this field. In general, the demand for specialists in this field remains high, especially at the regional level.

The following key points about this field can be emphasized: 1. Graduates in religious studies apply their skills in a variety of sectors, including civil service and academic research. They are also actively involved in regional religious affairs offices and religious studies research centers. 2. Specialists in the field of “Islamic Studies” and “Theology” are most often employed in regional research centers, as well as branches of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan who participate in rehabilitation and outreach activities related to religious issues. 3. Approximately one-third of graduates specializing in “Islamic Studies” are women, who typically do not find employment after graduation. This contributes to the ongoing shortage of qualified theologians and Islamologists.

Thus, in Kazakhstan, more than 500 students in specialties in the field of religion contribute to meeting regional needs in personnel. Analysis of the current year shows the following:

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Despite the significant number of graduates, there is a shortage of specialists, especially in the field of Islamic studies and theology.

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Staff shortages vary from one region to another due to factors such as staff turnover, a concentration of educational institutions in southern Kazakhstan, and other social factors.

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The staffing issue is particularly acute in regions such as Astana, Almaty, Atyrau, Aktobe, Zhambyl, Mangistau, and Turkestan.

Notably, under modern conditions, specialists who speak two languages, Kazakh and Russian, as well as Arabic, which is used in communication with parishioners, are especially valuable. However, the low level of salaries in regional centers for the study of religious problems does not contribute to the motivation of young specialists to improve their professional skills, which, in turn, becomes one of the reasons for the outflow of qualified specialists to other spheres of activity. Such staff turnover does not contribute to professionalization and the formation of continuity, which is important for strengthening the school of mentoring among young specialists.

In addition, graduates of the specialties “Islamic studies” and “Theology” are not often motivated to work in rural areas due to low or absent salary levels in the positions of imams in districts and villages (Badagulova 2017). Currently, under the auspices of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan, there are nine colleges (madrasas) that train specialists in religious education. These programs in Islamic studies offer qualifications such as “Imam-hatib” and “Ustaz” (Sadvokassov and Zhumashev 2023).

The majority of madrasah colleges are concentrated in the southern regions of Kazakhstan, where 2598 students are studying. In 2023, the number of graduates of these educational institutions reached 371 people, of whom 254 found employment, 70 continued their education, and 26 moved to other sectors. Predominantly, graduates of madrasah colleges are employed in branches of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK), is a regional center for research on religious problems and other sectors. The Institute for Retraining and Advanced Training of Imams and Theologians in the field of extremism prevention at Nur-Mubarak University, founded in September 2016, is functioning to improve the qualifications of specialists in the field of religion.In addition, more than 200 clerics from mosques across the Republic annually participate in refresher courses at the Islamic Institute for Advanced Training of Imams and the Islamic Institute named after Husamuddin al-Syganaki, under the SAMK.

Additionally, Kazakhstani citizens have the opportunity to receive education from foreign theological educational institutions within the framework of international agreements through SAMK. Among the most popular educational institutions are Al-Azhar University in the Arab Republic of Egypt and Haseki University in the Republic of Turkey. Students from Kazakhstan also attend schools in other countries, including Jordan, Malaysia, Russia, and others. To determine the potential for the growth of these specializations, a survey was carried out among the heads of departments at institutions that are responsible for the training of specialists.

In 2023, the departments of religious studies at both Eurasian National University and the International Kazakh—Turkish University collaborated to build a curriculum for the newly established specialty of “Religious Psychologists”. The fact that universities want to adjust their educational programs to meet the demands of the modern world and incorporate perspectives from a variety of disciplines into the study of religion is demonstrated by this.

In addition, in response to the recommendations made by the Committee on Religious Affairs, a number of educational institutions of higher learning are the process of incorporating new fields of study into their curriculum. In 2023; for instance, Nur-Mubarak University offered courses on “Conflictology”, “Management”, and “Psychology of Religion”. These courses highlight the importance of taking an integrated approach to the process of training specialists in the field of religious studies.

Aktobe Regional University named after A. Zhubanov, is developing an educational program on the specialty “Teacher of History and Social Sciences”, which includes a significant number of hours in religious studies disciplines. This emphasizes the university’s commitment to the formation of deep knowledge in the field of religious studies in future teachers.

According to 2023 data, Kazakhstan has 4,650 imams, including 1,260 chief imams, 1,004 naib imams, 423 azans, 613 ustazs, and 1,325 mullahs (Figure 9). Of the clergy working in branches of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK), 1,634 individuals, or 35 percent, possess higher education. These data highlight the significant demand for qualified specialists in the field of religious education and management (Sectoral Qualifications Framework for Religious Studies n.d.).

As a part of the strategy of continuous professional development, professional development courses are systematically conducted. As of this year, 1507 people have successfully completed courses, which is 34.5 percent of the total number of clergies affiliated with the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan. The fact that clergy members actively participate in educational programs that are designed to improve their professional compliance is highlighted by this action. Despite this, the demand for skilled professionals through the SAMK continues to be significant, with an annual demand of approximately 250 individuals, and there is a trend for this number to increase in the years to come.

In 2023, the greatest need for specialists was recorded in Turkestan, Atyrau, Karaganda, and Almaty regions, indicating regional peculiarities in the distribution of staffing needs in religious administration and education.

4.4. Pedagogical System of Education in Islam in the Territory of Kazakhstan

Islamic education in Kazakhstan is going through a stage of institutionalization, taking into account both historical experience and the traditional Cultural foundations of Kazakh people, their everyday life, and modern needs. Since independence, the structure of Islamic education in Kazakhstan has been significantly restored, and the modern system of Islamic education is now integrated into the general educational process, conforms to state educational standards.

Education is traditionally perceived as a mechanism of intergenerational transmission of cultural values, traditions, norms, and customs (Zhapekova et al. 2018). This idea is widely acknowledged in the academic and pedagogical communities, and it emphasizes the significance of the educational process in the maintenance and development of cultural legacy (Smagulov et al. 2023). This process comprises the transfer of Islamic values and traditions, which is an essential component of the cultural identity of Muslims (Aminov 2022). This process takes place within the context of Islamic education. Islamic education in Kazakhstan is going through a stage of institutionalization, taking into account both historical experience and the traditional Cultural foundations of Kazakh people, their everyday life, and modern needs (Seitakhmetova et al. 2020). Since independence, the structure of Islamic education in Kazakhstan has been significantly restored, and the modern system of Islamic education is now integrated into the general educational process and conforms to state educational standards (Zhapekova et al. 2018). However, the need for further development and institutionalization of Islamic education is driven by the necessity to establish effective communicative practices and adapt the Islamic educational model to the overall integration process in Kazakhstan (Muzykina 2022).

The Qur’an and Sunnah form the basis of Islamic culture and serve as the foundation for all aspects of Muslim life, including education. Modern Islamic education in Kazakhstan and other Muslim countries consists of formalized systems that encompass not only the basics of reading and writing but also the study of jurisprudence, grammar, and other specialized disciplines (Muminov 2018a; Yemelianova 2017). This underscores the professionalism and depth of the Islamic educational process, which is aimed at developing competent and ethically aware individuals (Khalid 2021).

Madrasas were initiated in 2007, and since 2015, they have received the status of colleges in Kazakhstan (Doolotkeldieva 2020). As part of the educational reform initiated in the same year, changes in educational programs were introduced, including the transition to linear, modular, and credit-modular learning systems. These changes were approved and put into effect according to the protocol of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 24, 2015, under protocol number 3. From 2016 to 2017, all colleges started to apply the modular learning system. Since 2020, credit-modular technologies have been gradually integrated into the system of technical and vocational education.

The specificity of the educational process in the system of Islamic education is that its purpose is cultural and educational work with the population, an important mission of which is the integration of Muslim culture in Kazakhstan space (Mustafayeva 2023).

There are problems related to adaptation to online formats and the impact of online learning on the quality of the educational process (Bureau of National Statistics n.d.). The need for online learning was realized during the coronavirus pandemic (Doolotkeldieva 2020; Janguzhiyev and Zhapekova 2022; Knysh et al. 2019). The problem of modernization of religious education has become especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic (Mustafina 2010; Zakhay et al. 2022) when most educational organizations were forced to urgently switch to an online form of education.

The authors of (Makdisi 1979; Utkelbayeva 2019; Van Bruinessen 2012) analyzed the institutionalization of Islamic education in Kazakhstan, related to the preservation of religious, cultural, and national values through educational practices.

Figure 10 shows the different components of the Islamic educational trajectory. The educational programs of madrasas (colleges) are implemented according to the following modules:

• Islamic history: This section covers the history, culture, and civilizational aspects of Islam.
• Kazakh tradition: This refers to Islamic education in Kazakhstan as well as the historical foundations and customs of the Kazakh people.
• Tajwid: This involves the art of correctly reading the Quran, along with the recitation of Suras and prayers. Tafsir, the interpretation of the Quran, is also covered in this section of the religious text.
• Arabic language: This section covers Arabic language abilities such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking in Arabic.
• Fiqh and Methodology: This course examines Islamic jurisprudence and covers a variety of issues, including fatwas and the application of Islamic rights.
• In the sixth section, known as Islamic Aqeedah, topics such as Islamic faith, ethics, and tasawwuf (Sufism) are discussed.
• Hadith terminology is the seventh section, and its primary objective is to teach students how to read hadith, comprehend hadith texts, and learn hadith terminology. The fact that each of these domains is connected to the others demonstrates that, when taken as a whole, they contribute to the understanding of Islamic knowledge.

Each of these areas is interrelated, indicating that together they contribute to a comprehensive study of Islamic knowledge.

Kazakhstan uses educational programs in Islamic education and madrasas (colleges) (Figure 11).

However, to date, the digitalization of educational institutions has been relevant since the coronavirus pandemic, but the application of ICT (Tarasova et al. 2022) in Islamic education has remained insufficiently studied.

SAMK has made significant progress in strengthening the system of Islamic education, but given the growing number of students and the new status of madrasah colleges, it is necessary to develop a special strategy for their further development.

Improving the system of Muslim education in Kazakhstan requires efforts from both religious, civil, and state organizations.

However, the need for further development of the institutionalization of Islamic education is conditioned by the need for the formation of effective communicative practices and adaptation of the Islamic educational model within the general integration process in Kazakhstan. Additionally, the digitalization of educational institutions has been relevant since the coronavirus pandemic, but the application of ICT (Tarasova et al. 2022) in Islamic education has remained insufficiently studied.

4.5. Perspectives on Islamic Education and Specific Recommendations to Improve the Islamic Education System in Kazakhstan

The Islamic educational system, like any other, is based on specific ontological views on human existence and nature, as well as on the goals that it sets for itself. These goals are determined based on ideas about how a person can develop and achieve their goals. Therefore, before analyzing the Islamic education system in detail, it is important to consider its theoretical foundations, which will then help formulate practical principles of learning. The Islamic educational system, like any other, is based on specific ontological views on human existence and nature, as well as on the goals that it sets for itself. These goals are determined based on ideas about how a person can develop and achieve their goals. Therefore, before analyzing the Islamic education system in detail, it is important to consider its theoretical foundations, which will then help formulate practical principles of learning. Within the framework of Islamic education, the concepts of vision and mission are central to determining the strategic direction and goals of educational institutions. These concepts not only set the main directions for the work of educational institutions but also form the basis for educating students in the spirit of Islamic values. Based on the results of this study, it is obvious that the existing processes in the Islamic education system in Kazakhstan require modernization of the system in accordance with modern requirements.

Integrating Islamic education with modern educational standards in Kazakhstan requires a comprehensive approach that includes updating curricula, using new technologies, and strengthening the links between Islamic educational institutions and the wider educational system.

In this regard, the following recommendations for state bodies, both public and religious organizations, can be offered:

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The modern Islamic education system in Kazakhstan is confronted with obstacles that have a negative impact on both its current state and its potential for future growth. Additionally, there are considerable chances for its improvement and incorporation into the larger educational and cultural environment of the country. These prospects are simultaneously available. Integrating Islamic education with modern educational standards in Kazakhstan requires a comprehensive approach that includes updating curricula, using new technologies, and strengthening the links between Islamic educational institutions and the wider educational system.

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The SAMK and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan should conduct an audit of all Islamic educational institutions of different levels operating in the Republic of Kazakhstan to determine their place in the unified system of Islamic religious education for their licensing, to adopt appropriate regulatory and legal acts.

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The SAMK and members of the Council of Ulema, with the involvement of employees of the Ministry of Education as consultants, should build a hierarchical system of Islamic education and adopt unified educational standards, where it is necessary to disclose the norms and values of traditional Islam in religious disciplines.

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Develop scientific and methodological concepts of traditional Islam as a means to preserve internal public integrity, stability, secular principles, and religious identity while preventing and resolving religious contradictions. This is achieved through a comprehensive study of Islamic values, shaped by the spiritual experiences throughout the history of Kazakhstan.

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Establish clear criteria and standards for courses and programs in Islamic educational institutions, ensuring alignment with national educational standards. Accredit Islamic educational programs at the national level to ensure their recognition and validity.

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Integrate traditional Islamic education with modern educational standards and technologies. This includes updating curricula, introducing new teaching methods, and using digital technologies.

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In Islamic educational institutions, implement electronic textbooks, educational applications, and online courses that can supplement traditional learning are being considered.

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Implement courses that span multiple disciplines. Develop education programs that combine Islamic studies with other areas of study, such as Islamic economics or Islam and international relations (examples of possible integration). It is necessary to intensify the attraction of applicants to madrasa colleges by including them in the curriculum disciplines aimed at the broad intellectual development of students, in addition to teaching the fundamentals of Islam.

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Maintaining high-quality education and training in Islamic educational institutions presents a key challenge. It is important to attract qualified teachers, provide access to quality teaching materials, and support research facilities. Increasing the number of teachers with scientific degrees would not only enhance the quality of education but also strengthen the teaching staff, thereby boosting the reputation of these institutions among prospective students.

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Host ongoing training sessions for educators working in Islamic educational institutions; focus on contemporary instructional strategies and integrating technologies into the classroom.

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Develop the infrastructure of educational institutions and improve materials and technical support.

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Strengthening research activities in Islamic educational institutions can contribute to the development of new knowledge and approaches in the field of Islamic sciences. Expand the methodological basis of the general scientific and conceptual apparatuses.

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Provide grants and funding for research projects in Islamic sciences that can contribute to the integration of Islamic and modern knowledge.

By implementing these recommendations, the quality and effectiveness of Islamic education in the Republic of Kazakhstan can be enhanced, which is a crucial endeavor that demands an integrated approach.

5. Discussion

Within the framework of our research, we used the historical-genetic method, which allowed us to identify the main cause-and-effect relationships, the key aspects of the historical development, and the current state of the system of Islamic education in Kazakhstan. This method also facilitated the study of unique details and features related to certain historical periods, geographical locations, national and group mentality, and personal characteristics of the participants of the process.

We performed a systematic analysis that allowed us to study the Islamic education system of Kazakhstan against the background of a chronological overview of the development of Islamic education. The thematic-chronological approach made it possible to analyze the development of Islamic education in chronological sequence and through a wide range of issues related to this topic.

Based on the analysis, we developed an infographic of the contextual and chronological histories of Islam and education in Kazakhstan (Figure 12).

This chronology (Figure 12) shows the spread of Islam in the Kazakh steppe and describes the historical development and influence of Islam in the region, spanning several centuries.

After thoroughly analyzing the pedagogical system of Islamic education, we developed 12 infographics (Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13) based on the analyzed articles. From this analysis, we proposed recommendations for modernizing the Islamic educational system. We presented an infographic model of educational programs for both classroom and elective courses at a madrasa (college) (Figure 13).

6. Conclusions

Even though the paper addresses the history and construction of Islam in Kazakhstan during the 33 years of the country’s independence, there are still many missing pieces and contentious issues in this field, and more investigations are needed. This is particularly relevant in terms of chronology, specifically concerning the definition of the upper boundary in the periodization of Islamization, exploring the relationship between Islam and statehood, assessing the impact of Islam on national consciousness, and investigating the interaction between Islam and Tengriism, as well as the biographies and legacies of religious figures such as ishans and khazretes.

We systematically arranged the historical and modern features of Islamic education, and we provided proposals for the enhancement of Islamic education and its incorporation into Kazakhstan’s general educational space. With a comprehensive comprehension of the results, our team revealed the results of this study through the creation of twelve infographics. An analytical review of the current condition of Islamic education in Kazakhstan is included in these materials, developed via analysis and synthesis methodologies.

The findings of our study can be used as a foundation for the development of initiatives that will improve the quality of Islamic education in the Republic of Kazakhstan as well as its overall efficacy.