Waste, Exclusion, and the Responsibility of the Rich: A Franciscan Critique of Early Capitalist Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Overrepresentation of Western Man and the Polyhedron
Following Wynter, I am guided by long-standing and vigorous efforts to break open racialized, exclusionary ideologies of social relationships that marginalize vast groups of human beings and treat people as if they were expendable waste. As Francis affirms “No one is useless and no one is expendable”, and those who are excluded “see aspects of reality that are invisible to the centres of power where weighty decisions are made” (Francis 2020, § 215).The argument proposes that the struggle of our new millennium will be one between the ongoing imperative of securing the well-being of our present ethnoclass (i.e., Western bourgeois) conception of the human, Man, which overrepresents itself as if it were the human itself, and that of securing the well-being, and therefore the full cognitive and behavioral autonomy of the human species itself/ourselves.(ibid., p. 260)
3. Osuna’s Life and Overview of Consolation for the Poor and Warning for the Rich
3.1. Biographical Sketch
3.2. Osuna as Author in the Context of the Spanish Empire
3.3. Overview of Osuna’s Text
4. Osuna’s Imagery: The Natural World and Jacob’s Ladder
4.1. Sun, Moon, Animals, the Elements, and Earth
So that avarice would not erase this natural religion from your heart, God thought it good to inscribe it on all of his creatures; because, if nature, as it can be proved, abhors a void and does not consent to it, or permit it, why is it, do you think, except because a void impedes the influences and communications that exist between superior and inferior things, high and low? From this it follows that the elements are symbolic, that is, they participate with one another in a quality, and they help one another.11(p. 737)
4.2. Jacob’s Ladder
The two rails of this ladder are two considerations that he who gives alms should have. The rail on the right, the first one, is for you to think about how you are giving alms to God first of all. Do not look at the man you give to, rather the One for whom you are giving, who is God our Lord… Place the other rail, or foot, of this ladder close to yourself, and you should do this when you think about asking God for things greater than those you give to the poor in alms. Think that for God, of whom every day you ask many things, you yourself are poor. With what audacity can you say the prayer of the Our Father, that is full of requests, if you turn your eyes away, not wanting to see or hear the poor?16(pp. 726–27)
5. Osuna’s Imagery: Dark-Skinned Women and Crowns
5.1. Female Biblical Figures
But she is in herself beautiful because avarice is so ugly, so much so that barely or never can one find a rich man without its stain, so it seems that beautiful cleanliness suits this bride of Christ our Lord, who is like a lily among thorns. If you, being so blind, misjudge the colors of this lady, that does not stop her from being graceful to the angels and very kind in God’s eyes. Where with Solomon we can say: ‘Her have I loved, and have sought her out from my youth, and have desired to take for my spouse, and I became a lover of her beauty. She glorifies her nobility by being conversant with God: yea, and the Lord of all things has loved her. For it is she that teaches the knowledge of God and is the chooser of his works.’20(p. 279)
Moreover, to Moses, to Christ, and to the good Christian, and devout clergyman, Ethiopian poverty does not seem to be anything but so beautiful that of her we may say, ‘And as the time came orderly about, the day was at hand, when Esther was to go in to the king. But she sought not women’s ornaments, but whatsoever Egeus the eunuch the keeper of the virgins had a mind, he gave her to adorn her. For she was marvelously lovely, and to the eyes of all she appeared incredibly agreeable and amiable.’22(p. 277)
5.2. Queens and Crowns
6. From Waste and Exclusion to Inclusive Freedom
6.1. Causes of Poverty: Finance and Slavery
- Rich Christians are not as charitable as they were in the time of the early Church;
- The rich now prefer to be served by Black slaves in their households;
- The rich are taking control of lands and removing people and villages to pasture animals;
- The many wars of territorial expansion underway are theft and murder;
- Delusional fantasies lead people to unlimited greed and spending what they do not have;
- Laws do not protect the poor from being preyed upon by the rich;
- The rich maintain an exclusive society in which they benefit only one another;
- Fraternities of rich merchants are monopolizing trade;
- The rich are taking for themselves resources intended for the poor;
- The rich plunder raw materials and flood markets with foreign goods (858–69).
So that you can see how difficult the snares of avarice are to recognize, let me tell you that when I was in Antwerp, that most solemn marketplace of Europe where there is greater trade than in Venice, the merchants, having much doubt about their dealings, and whether they were making excessive profits or not, agreed to write to the doctors in Paris, begging and paying them to inform them about what they call bills of exchange here, and to tell them whether they were lawful or not. I myself read, many times, the response and signatures of the doctors, who did not know how to say yes or no, since they found those snares of avarice so hidden and hard to see that they did not know how to unravel them. And that is why they did not respond other than that it was advisable for the merchants to deal with their money, licitly, in some other way, and this was the response of men who could not see the snares well. That is why, not knowing how to untie them, they answered a question they were not asked.
Do not be amazed that madmen can ask more than wise men can answer, because I warn you that many merchants have been found in Flanders who have the ingenuity of devils in cheating, and such as these lay those snares that David complained about. While I was there, I often heard the merchants say that neither Scotus nor Saint Thomas reached the subtleties of Flemish markets and exchanges, and I conceded this because I saw in them the secret snares of the devil into which the rich make the people with whom they deal fall, and, unawares, their very souls are caught there, which happens so subtly that all the scholars in the world who would scrutinize those sins would faint in the inquiry.
Since, as with all questionable things that touch the health of the soul, a man is obliged to take the safest route, you could ask what is the reason those merchants permit these bills of exchange, when all wise men have great scruples about them being a mortal sin and requiring restitution. I shall reply to this with an answer that a gambling page gave to his confessor once, who, when asked why he did not stop gambling, replied: ‘Sir, I play at times with the head waiter, and the head waiter plays with the butler, and the butler with the treasurer, and the treasurer with the count, and the count with the duke, and the duke with the king, to do well and be more successful’. To this the confessor responded: ‘The main fault lies there, because, if the king did not play, then the others could abstain’. I mean to say that, if kings did not make excessive profits, then that vice would be remedied and punished and that snare would be cut; but understanding the king is involved, neither scholars dare to judge it bad nor justices punish it, and in this way everything remains hidden and they are still attributing it all to the secret snares of the devil.23(pp. 834–35)
6.2. Causes of Poverty: Warfare and Slavery
6.3. Free Will, the Patriarchal Household, and the Circuit of Mercy
The Roman Law conception of natural freedom is essentially based on the power of the individual (by implication, a male head of household) to dispose of his property as he sees fit. In Roman Law property isn’t even exactly a right; since rights are negotiated with others and involve mutual obligations; it’s simply power–the blunt reality that someone in possession of a thing can do anything he wants with it, except that which is limited ‘by force or law’. This formulation has some peculiarities that jurists have struggled with ever since, as it implies freedom is essentially a state of primordial exception to the legal order.
6.4. A Politics of Care
The Doughnut consists of two concentric rings: a social foundation, to ensure that no one is left falling short on life’s essentials, and an ecological ceiling, to ensure that humanity does not collectively overshoot the planetary boundaries that protect Earth’s life-supporting systems. Between these two sets of boundaries lies a doughnut-shaped space that is both ecologically safe and socially just: a space in which humanity can thrive.
7. Correspondences with Fratelli Tutti
- Distributing material resources while becoming content with possessing less;
- Taking pride in local communities and cultures;
- Overcoming delusions and indifference to the needs of others.
A common secular saying goes ‘It is better to have extra than to run short of something.’ However, the religion of which we speak, and any other, if it is good, says that it is better that we lack it, because what you lack makes up what another poor person needs, and another lacks what you have left over. Let no one take from kindness its condition, which is to flow forward. It does not love wells, but rivers.28
The solution is not an openness that spurns its own richness. Just as there can be no dialogue with “others” without a sense of our own identity, so there can be no openness between peoples except on the basis of love for one’s own land, one’s own people, one’s own cultural roots. I cannot truly encounter another unless I stand on firm foundations, for it is on the basis of these that I can accept the gift the other brings and in turn offer an authentic gift of my own. I can welcome others who are different, and value the unique contribution they have to make, only if I am firmly rooted in my own people and culture. Everyone loves and cares for his or her native land and village, just as they love and care for their home and are personally responsible for its upkeep.
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | I use Mariano Quirós García’s 2002 edition. The full title in Spanish is “Quinta parte del Abecedario Espiritual, de nuevo compuesto por el padre fray Francisco de Osuna, que es Consuelo de pobres y Aviso de ricos. No menos útil para los frayles que para los seculares y aun para los predicadores. Cuyo intento deve ser retraer los hombres del amor de las riquezas falsas y hazerlos pobres de espíritu.” [Fifth Part of the Spiritual Alphabet, newly composed by Father Friar Francisco de Osuna, called Consolation for the Poor and Warning for the Rich. No less useful for friars than for laymen and even for preachers. Whose intent should be to draw men away from the love of false riches and make them poor in spirit.] (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 231). There is no English translation of the work, so I translate quotations from Osuna’s text into English and offer the Spanish original in the notes. |
2 | Thomas Merton favorably reviewed the earliest English Translation of The Third Spiritual Alphabet in The Commonweal in 1948 (Merton 1948). Laura Calvert’s comprehensive study of Osuna’s six-volume Spiritual Alphabet with a focus on his mystical language spearheaded the growth of scholarship in English on Osuna (Calvert 1973). Mary E. Giles’ edition and translation of the first published work of his career, The Third Spiritual Alphabet (Giles 1981), provided a major advance for knowledge of Osuna in the Anglophone world. Jessica Boon offers an in-depth study of the mystical method of Bernardino de Laredo’s Franciscan recollection in Osuna’s era (Boon 2012). Dale Shuger analyzes Osuna’s mystical discourse within the context of mysticism in Early Modern Spain (Shuger 2022, pp. 25–41). For more on Osuna and recollection see Paul Whitehill (2007) and Carolyn Medine’s recent comparison of Osuna’s meditative method with Buddhist meditation (Medine 2021). For a general overview of scholarship on Osuna and updated biography in English that draws from recent Spanish sources, see Bultman (2019, pp. 1–18). I differ from some scholars in my view that Osuna intended to include the poor, women, and recent converts in the practice of recollection, based on ample evidence in his Norte de los estados, sermons, and Consolation for the Poor and Warning for the Rich. |
3 | See King’s discussion of “fungibility” in her chapter 5, “Ceremony for Sycorax” (King 2019, pp. 175–206). See also Boon’s provocative discussion of monetary exchange value and conquistador mentality in a passage from the first part of Osuna’s Spiritual Alphabet and the sermons of Franciscan abbess Juana de la Cruz (1481–1534) (Boon 2015, pp. 395–96). Boon argues that “early modern Castilian mystical texts rely on spiritual negotiation and embodied commerce to delineate what God has to offer souls and what souls have to offer God” (p. 396). I concur with Pérez, in his study of Osuna’s “theology of history” (Pérez García 2019b, p. 489), and with Boon that for Osuna “the economy, the body, and salvation are intimately linked” (Boon 2015, p. 395). |
4 | Foundational studies of Osuna’s mysticism and his brush with alumbrado [illuminist] persecution are Andrés (1975, pp. 107–67), Hamilton (1992), and López Santidrián (2005, pp. 16–19). As he wrote, Osuna would have been aware of his relatively low class position and association with controversial or weak patrons. These factors, together with his reformist views, interest in Lutheranism, association with peers accused of alumbradismo in the 1520s, status as a teacher who wrote in the vernacular for common people, and his criticism of clergy who did not adhere to vows of poverty, put him at some risk for persecution and likely played a role in his decision to leave Spain. |
5 | Osuna states his remedy is radical, “este remedio es radical” to mean that it is intended to pull greed from the human heart by its root (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 879). His six-chapter discussion of how to heal what he considers the “nearly incurable illness of avarice” comes at the end of Warning for the Rich (ibid., pp. 875–91). |
6 | Translations to English are mine; “el thesoro de tu libre alvedrío no lo renuncies en poder de hombre sin seso” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 656). |
7 | “no quiere ganancia, sino lícita, y gana de comer trabajando, sin trampas ni lisonjas” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 794). |
8 | “ni el pobre sea muy pobre ni el rico sea muy rico, que toda demasía es viciosa” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 687). |
9 | “Tiene más el sol: que, mientras nuestro medio mundo no goza d’él, se va corriendo al otro emisperio, y en la otra parte se da muy alegre y se goza y alegra viendo que ay quien de día y de noche resciba sus dones” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 689). |
10 | “Pregunta, pues, hombre, a los animales y enseñarte an la religión de la misericordia” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 737). |
11 | Osuna uses the term “ley natural” [natural law] in a passage just preceding this quotation about natural religion ([1542] 2002, p. 737); “Porque la codicia no borrase en tu coraçón esta religión natural, tuvo Dios por bien de la escrevir en todas sus criaturas; porque, si la naturaleza, según se prueva, aborresce la vacuydad y no la consiente, ni permite, ¿por qué, si piensas, es, sino porque la vacuydad impide los influxos y comunicaciones que ay entre las cosas superiores e inferiores, altas y baxas? De aquí es que los elementos son simbolizantes, esto es, participan unos con otros en una calidad, y se ayudan unos a otros...” (ibid., p. 737). |
12 | For analysis of the concept of the “Great” Chain of Being and how it provided a justification for rigid and violent social hierarchy in the Spanish Empire from the fifteenth century, see Wynter (2003, pp. 274, 296–303). For the ways the Chain of Being bestialized enslaved people and was used by Christian abolitionists, see Jackson (2020, pp. 48–55). |
13 | |
14 | “Y la tierra, como madre, nos sustenta y mantiene con sus fructos, y como a hijos nos da sus riquezas” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 737). |
15 | “Eres tan mudable que tienes entre manos una cosa y, sin parar mientes en aquélla, entiendes en otra y en otra” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 678). |
16 | “Los dos braços de aquesta escalera son dos consideraciones que ha de tener el que haze limosna. El braço diestro y primero es que pienses cómo la das a Dios primeramente. No mires al hombre, sino a Aquél por quien se la das, que es Dios nuestro Señor… El otro pie o braço d’esta escalera pon cerca de ti y hazerlo as quando pensares que tú as de pedir mayores cosas a Dios, al qual das en el pobre limosna. Piensa que para con Dios tú mesmo eres pobre, al qual cada día pides muchas cosas. ¿Con qué ossadía podrás dezir la oración del Pater Noster, que está llena de peticiones, si buelves tú los ojos no queriendo ver ni oýr al pobre?” (Osuna [1542] 2002, pp. 726–27). |
17 | “tomó una muger prieta” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 275). |
18 | “No se lee que’el sancto profecta Moysén tuviesse algún descontento de su muger, ni jamás la vituperasse, ni le diesse por malquerencia libelo de repudio” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 276). |
19 | “Si fuera rico diéronle lugar y oyeran su doctrina y respuestas, empero la pobreza etiopisa fue causa que menospreciassen sus profecías y sermones” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 276). |
20 | “Empero, es en sí hermosa porque, siendo tan fea el avaricia, que apenas o nunca se halle un rico sin mácula, bien parece que la hermosa limpieza conviene a esta esposa de Christo nuestro Señor, que es como lirio entre espinas. Si tú, como seas ciego, juzgas mal de las colores d’esta señora, no por esso dexa de ser a los ángeles graciosa y a Dios muy amable. Donde con Solomón podemos dezir: ‘Ha ésta amé y acabé de buscar dende mi juventud, y procuré de la tomar por esposa. Y soy hecho amador de su hermosura, cuya generosidad glorifica el que tiene compañía de Dios, porqu’el Senor de todas las cosas la amó, que enseñadora es de la disciplina de Dios y electora de sus obras’”. (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 279). |
21 | See Cairns’ study of the meaning of Esther, as queen, in the sixteenth-century Spanish Empire and the Sephardic diaspora. Her argument that “Esther is the patron-saint for crypto-Jews and conversos in the early modern period” provides context for considering the wider implications of Osuna’s use of Esther here (Cairns 2018, p. 1). |
22 | “mas a Moisén, ni a Christo, ni al buen christiano, ni al devoto religioso, no parece la pobreza etiopisa, sino tan hermosa que d’ella podamos dezir: ‘Bolviéndose por orden el tiempo, instava ya el día en que Hester devía entrar al rey, la qual no buscó mugeril atavío; mas Egeo, que guardava las vírgines, le dio las cosas que él quiso para su ornamento, porque era hermosa a maravilla y a los ojos de todos parecía graciosa increyblemente y amable’…” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 277). |
23 | “Porque veas tú quán malos son de ver los lazos de la avaricia, te hago saber que, estando yo en Enveres, que es aquella solempníssima tienda de Europa donde ay mayor trato que en Venecia, los mercaderes, teniendo mucha duda en sus tratos, si eran logros o no, acordaron de embiar a los doctores de París, rogándoles y pagándoles porque les informassen de los que allá se llaman cambios, y les respondiessen si eran lícitos o no. Yo mesmo leý, muchas vezes la respuesta y firmas de los doctores, que ni supieron dezir sí ni no, de manera que hallaron tan ocultos aquellos lazos del avaricia que no supieron desatallos. Y por esso no respondieron sino que les era de aconsejar que tratassen con su dinero en otra cosa lícitamente, y esta repuesta es de hombres que no pudieron ver bien los lazos. Y por esto, no sabiendo desatallos, respondieron lo que no les preguntavan. Tú no te maravilles que los locos puedan preguntar más que los sabios responder, porque te aviso que se an hallado en Flandes muchos mercaderes que tienen ingenio de diablos en trampear, y estos tales hazen aquellos lazos de que se quexaba David. Yo, estando allá, oýa muchas vezes dezir a los mercaderes que ni Escoto ni sancto Thomás alcançaron las sotilezas de la mercaduría y cambios flandescos, y esto concedíalo yo porque veýa en ellos los secretos lazos del demonio en que los ricos hazen caer a las personas con quien tratan y, no parando mientes, prenden allí sus mesmas ánimas, lo qual acaesce tan subtilmente que todos los letrados del mundo que escudriñassen aquellos pecados desfallecerían en la inquisición. Como en las cosas dudosas que tocan a la salud del ánima sea hombre obligado a tomar lo más seguro, podrías preguntar qué es la causa por que aquellos mercaderes no dexan aquellos cambios, pues todos los sabios tienen grande escrúpulo que son pecado mortal y traen obligación a restituyr. Podríate yo responder a esto una respuesta que dio un paje jugador a su confessor, el qual, como le dixessen por qué no dexaba el juego, respondió: ‘Señor, yo juego a las vezes con el mastresala, y el mastresala juega con el mayordomo, y el mayordomo con el thesorero, y el thesorero con el conde, y el conde con el duque, y el duque con el rey, por medrar y más valer’. A esto respondió el confessor: ‘La culpa principal está aý, porque, si el rey no jugasse, luego se podían abstener los otros’. D’esta manera digo yo que, si los reyes no tomassen a logro, luego se remediaría y castigaría aquel vicio y se cortaría aquel lazo; mas entendiendo el rey en ellos, ni los letrados osan determinallo por péssimo ni las justicias castigallo, sino que assí se quede todo solapado y se llamen todavía lazos ocultos del demonio malo” (Osuna [1542] 2002, pp. 834–35). |
24 | “los reyes matan vasallos por defender sus riquezas, y embíanlos a las guerras, no por defender la fe, sino los dineros” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 872). |
25 | “Los esclavos que carescen de libertad y están subjectos mucho an caýdo de la dignidad del hombre, que fue criado para señor, y se an conformado con las bestias, que fueron al hombre subjectas, y por esto los esclavos son menospreciados y aborresce hombre venir en tal estado” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 654). |
26 | “ya los ricos gastan mucho en mantener perros y halcones y negros, de manera que no se quieren servir sino de negros, y no de menesterosos de su pueblo” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 859). |
27 | “Pues, éstos que yo he menester quédese, porque los he menester; y estos otros inútiles quédense también, porque ellos me an menester a mí” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 860). |
28 | “Conclusión averiguada es acerca de los seglares: ‘Más vale que sobre que no falte’; empero, la religión de que hablamos y qualquier otra, si buena es, no dize sino que es mejor que nos falte, porque a otro pobre remedia lo que a ti te falta, y a otro falta lo que a ti sobra. Pues, ninguno quite a la bondad su condición, que es passar adelante. No ama los pozos, sino los ríos” (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 736). |
29 | “El amor es libro, y árbol, y thesoro y piedra preciosa, y todo lo que más quisieres pensar, si escudriñas sus misterios”. (Osuna [1542] 2002, p. 500). |
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Bultman, D. Waste, Exclusion, and the Responsibility of the Rich: A Franciscan Critique of Early Capitalist Europe. Religions 2022, 13, 818. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090818
Bultman D. Waste, Exclusion, and the Responsibility of the Rich: A Franciscan Critique of Early Capitalist Europe. Religions. 2022; 13(9):818. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090818
Chicago/Turabian StyleBultman, Dana. 2022. "Waste, Exclusion, and the Responsibility of the Rich: A Franciscan Critique of Early Capitalist Europe" Religions 13, no. 9: 818. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090818
APA StyleBultman, D. (2022). Waste, Exclusion, and the Responsibility of the Rich: A Franciscan Critique of Early Capitalist Europe. Religions, 13(9), 818. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090818