A Nationally Representative Survey of Faith and Work: Demographic Subgroup Differences around Calling and Conflict
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Worker Demographics
3.2. Work as a Spiritual Calling
3.3. Faith at Work Conflict
3.4. Religious Discrimination
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1 | Muslims are one of the fastest-growing religions in the U.S., and have reported the highest levels of discrimination in the workplace in recent years (Bartkoski et al. 2018). Judaism has had an important historical presence in the U.S. and in studies of work (Lynn et al. 2011). |
2 | The overall panel survey response rate, which includes all stages of the selection process, was 1.2 percent. |
3 | ‘Work hours’ was capped at 100 h per week and respondents who reported more than 100 h (0.2 percent of workers) were recoded as working 100 h per week. |
4 | Organizational position is asked separately from income as the two are considered to be measuring distinct constructs. For example, a pastor might be at the top of the church organization but may still have a modest income compared to a CEO of a private company. To be sure, the correlation between organizational position and household income was statistically significant but substantively weak (Pearson r = 0.27, p < 0.001). |
5 | Religious identity was asked of all respondents and a follow-up question about ‘Congregation type’ was asked among Christians to discern evangelical or mainline affiliation. In this analysis, individuals who reported affiliations of Evangelical, Fundamentalist, or Charismatic were coded as “Evangelical” and individuals who reported affiliations of Mainline or Liberal were coded as “Mainline.” Respondents who selected multiple congregational affiliations (e.g., Liberal and Charismatic) were coded as “Other Christian.” |
6 | Certain religious minorities (Jews and Muslims) were purposefully oversampled to obtain large enough samples for meaningful subgroup comparisons. |
7 | Response options included Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Very Often, and Not Applicable. |
8 | Interestingly, a higher proportion of those who identify as “Other Christian” reported having ever experienced religious discrimination (55 percent). This includes Mormons and others who may not identify within Mainline and Evangelical traditions, but overall this group makes up a very low proportion of the sample (3 percent). Nevertheless, their experiences seem to depart from Evangelical and Mainline Christians in notable ways. |
Variable | Response Options | Full Sample (n = 13,270) | “Workers” Employed FT/PT (n = 8797) |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Men | 48 | 54 |
Women | 51 | 45 | |
Prefer to self-describe | 1 | 1 | |
Prefer not to say | 1 | 1 | |
Sexual Orientation | Heterosexual or straight | 89 | 89 |
Gay, lesbian, or homosexual | 3 | 3 | |
Bisexual | 5 | 5 | |
Prefer to self-describe | 1 | 1 | |
Prefer not to say | 2 | 2 | |
Don’t know | 1 | 1 | |
Race | White, non-Hispanic | 67 | 67 |
Hispanic | 12 | 13 | |
Black | 12 | 11 | |
Asian | 1 | 1 | |
Other | 3 | 3 | |
Multi-racial | 5 | 5 | |
Age | 18–24 | 6 | 6 |
25–34 | 25 | 32 | |
35–44 | 16 | 20 | |
45–54 | 18 | 21 | |
55–64 | 17 | 16 | |
65+ | 19 | 6 | |
Education | High school or less | 41 | 32 |
Tech/trade/some college | 21 | 22 | |
2-year associate’s degree | 8 | 8 | |
4-year bachelor’s degree | 13 | 17 | |
Post-grad school/degree | 17 | 21 | |
Household Income | Less than $12,000 | 6 | 3 |
$12,000 to $23,999 | 8 | 6 | |
$24,000 to $35,999 | 10 | 9 | |
$36,000 to $47,999 | 9 | 9 | |
$48,000 to $59,999 | 10 | 9 | |
$60,000 to $89,999 | 19 | 20 | |
$90,000 to $119,999 | 15 | 18 | |
$120,000 to $179,999 | 13 | 16 | |
$180,000 to $239,999 | 5 | 7 | |
$240,000 to $1000,000 | 4 | 4 | |
More than $1000,000 | 0.3 | 0.2 | |
Immigrant Statusǂ | Yes | 7 | 7 |
No | 93 | 93 | |
Immigrant Parentsǂ | Yes | 10 | 10 |
No | 90 | 90 |
Variable | Response Options | Full Sample (n = 13,270) | Employed FT/PT (n = 8797) |
---|---|---|---|
Employment Status | Employed full-time | 56 | 82 |
Employed part-time | 12 | 18 | |
Not employed, but looking | 4 | - | |
Not employed, not looking | 28 | - | |
Number of Jobsǂ | One | - | 85 |
Two | - | 12 | |
Three or more | - | 3 | |
Organizational Position ◊ | Top | 17 | 17 |
Middle | 48 | 45 | |
Bottom | 36 | 38 | |
Religious Identity | Evangelical Protestant | 26 | 25 |
Mainline Protestant | 18 | 16 | |
Catholic | 17 | 16 | |
Other Christian | 2 | 2 | |
Jewish | 2 | 2 | |
Muslim | 1 | 1 | |
Other religion | 4 | 4 | |
No religion | 27 | 31 | |
Don’t know | 2 | 2 | |
Attend Religious Services | Never | 28 | 29 |
Less than once a year | 16 | 16 | |
Once a year | 6 | 7 | |
Several times a year | 14 | 15 | |
Once a month | 3 | 3 | |
Two to three times a month | 5 | 5 | |
Nearly every week | 8 | 7 | |
Every week | 13 | 11 | |
More than once a week | 6 | 5 | |
Pray | Never | 26 | 30 |
Less than once a week | 14 | 15 | |
Once a week | 6 | 6 | |
Several times a week | 16 | 16 | |
Once a day | 12 | 11 | |
Several times a day | 27 | 22 | |
Religiosity | Not at all religious | 28 | 32 |
Slightly religious | 22 | 24 | |
Moderately religious | 33 | 30 | |
Very religious | 17 | 15 |
Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree | Chi-Square Test p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall * | 46 | 12 | 22 | 12 | 8 | - | |
Gender | Men | 48 | 13 | 23 | 11 | 6 | p < 0.0001 |
Women | 44 | 12 | 20 | 14 | 10 | ||
Race | White, non-Hispanic | 48 | 12 | 22 | 11 | 7 | p < 0.0001 |
Hispanic | 45 | 13 | 21 | 14 | 7 | ||
Black | 35 | 14 | 20 | 17 | 14 | ||
Asian | 54 | 17 | 12 | 13 | 4 | ||
Other | 44 | 9 | 29 | 12 | 6 | ||
Multi-racial | 47 | 11 | 20 | 12 | 10 | ||
Household Incomeǂ | Less than $48,000 | 42 | 13 | 23 | 12 | 10 | p < 0.0001 |
$48,000–$89,999 | 46 | 12 | 21 | 13 | 9 | ||
$90,000–$179,000 | 47 | 12 | 23 | 12 | 6 | ||
$180,000+ | 52 | 14 | 16 | 11 | 6 | ||
Organizational Position◊ | Top | 40 | 12 | 23 | 15 | 11 | |
Middle | 44 | 12 | 23 | 12 | 8 | p < 0.0001 | |
Bottom | 52 | 13 | 19 | 11 | 5 | ||
Religious Identity | Evangelical Protestant | 26 | 13 | 28 | 18 | 15 | p < 0.0001 |
Mainline Protestant | 33 | 15 | 25 | 16 | 11 | ||
Catholic | 41 | 16 | 25 | 12 | 7 | ||
Other Christian | 24 | 19 | 25 | 19 | 13 | ||
Jewish | 55 | 14 | 16 | 12 | 4 | ||
Muslim | 34 | 14 | 22 | 14 | 16 | ||
Other religion | 51 | 13 | 17 | 12 | 7 | ||
No religion | 70 | 8 | 14 | 6 | 2 | ||
Don’t know | 56 | 12 | 19 | 9 | 4 |
I Do Not Have Religious Beliefs | Never | Rarely | Sometimes | Often | Very Often | Chi-Square Test p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall * | 26 | 53 | 13 | 6 | 1 | 1 | - | |
Gender | Men | 27 | 52 | 14 | 5 | 1 | 1 | p = 0.07 |
Women | 26 | 55 | 13 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
Race | White, non-Hispanic | 28 | 53 | 13 | 5 | 1 | 0 | p < 0.0001 |
Hispanic | 26 | 54 | 13 | 5 | 1 | 1 | ||
Black | 14 | 56 | 19 | 8 | 2 | 1 | ||
Asian | 37 | 46 | 12 | 5 | 0.0 | 0.4 | ||
Other | 29 | 50 | 9 | 8 | 0.2 | 4 | ||
Multi-racial | 27 | 52 | 11 | 8 | 0.5 | 0.4 | ||
Household Incomeǂ | Less than $48,000 | 26 | 53 | 13 | 6 | 1 | 1 | p < 0.0001 |
$48,000–$89,999 | 26 | 52 | 15 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
$90,000–$179,000 | 27 | 54 | 13 | 5 | 1 | 0.5 | ||
$180,000+ | 30 | 53 | 12 | 5 | 0.0 | 0.3 | ||
Organizational Position ◊ | Top | 21 | 61 | 12 | 4 | 1 | 1 | p < 0.0001 |
Middle | 26 | 53 | 14 | 6 | 1 | 0.5 | ||
Bottom | 30 | 50 | 13 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
Religious Identity | Evangelical Protestant | 2 | 69 | 20 | 8 | 1 | 1 | p < 0.0001 |
Mainline Protestant | 3 | 71 | 18 | 7 | 1 | 1 | ||
Catholic | 4 | 72 | 15 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
Other Christian | 1 | 62 | 26 | 10 | 0.4 | 0.0 | ||
Jewish | 14 | 65 | 14 | 6 | 0.4 | 1 | ||
Muslim | 4 | 55 | 28 | 11 | 1 | 2 | ||
Other religion | 14 | 57 | 15 | 12 | 1 | 2 | ||
No religion | 74 | 21 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0.2 | ||
Don’t know | 28 | 57 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 0.0 |
Not Applicable | Never | Rarely | Sometimes | Often | Very Often | Chi-Square Test p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall * | 10 | 61 | 16 | 11 | 2 | 1 | - | |
Gender | Men | 10 | 60 | 17 | 11 | 2 | 1 | p < 0.01 |
Women | 10 | 63 | 15 | 10 | 2 | 1 | ||
Race | White, non-Hispanic | 9 | 61 | 16 | 11 | 2 | 1 | p < 0.0001 |
Hispanic | 10 | 60 | 16 | 11 | 1 | 1 | ||
Black | 10 | 64 | 12 | 9 | 2 | 2 | ||
Asian | 17 | 55 | 19 | 6 | 1 | 3 | ||
Other | 17 | 59 | 12 | 8 | 2 | 1 | ||
Multi-racial | 13 | 57 | 14 | 12 | 2 | 1 | ||
Household Incomeǂ | Less than $48,000 | 11 | 58 | 15 | 12 | 2 | 2 | p < 0.0001 |
$48,000–$89,999 | 11 | 59 | 16 | 10 | 2 | 1 | ||
$90,000–$179,000 | 9 | 63 | 16 | 10 | 1 | 1 | ||
$180,000+ | 8 | 67 | 15 | 8 | 1 | 1 | ||
Organizational Position◊ | Top | 8 | 64 | 16 | 11 | 1 | 1 | p < 0.001 |
Middle | 10 | 62 | 15 | 10 | 2 | 1 | ||
Bottom | 12 | 58 | 16 | 11 | 2 | 1 | ||
Religious Identity | Evangelical Protestant | 5 | 62 | 18 | 13 | 2 | 1 | p < 0.0001 |
Mainline Protestant | 6 | 72 | 14 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
Catholic | 7 | 73 | 14 | 6 | 1 | 1 | ||
Other Christian | 2 | 43 | 32 | 16 | 3 | 4 | ||
Jewish | 3 | 43 | 30 | 21 | 2 | 1 | ||
Muslim | 7 | 31 | 15 | 30 | 7 | 9 | ||
Other religion | 10 | 54 | 18 | 14 | 2 | 2 | ||
No religion | 19 | 53 | 14 | 11 | 2 | 1 | ||
Don’t know | 20 | 61 | 10 | 6 | 1 | 1 |
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Ecklund, E.H.; Daniels, D.; Bolger, D.; Johnson, L. A Nationally Representative Survey of Faith and Work: Demographic Subgroup Differences around Calling and Conflict. Religions 2020, 11, 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11060287
Ecklund EH, Daniels D, Bolger D, Johnson L. A Nationally Representative Survey of Faith and Work: Demographic Subgroup Differences around Calling and Conflict. Religions. 2020; 11(6):287. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11060287
Chicago/Turabian StyleEcklund, Elaine Howard, Denise Daniels, Daniel Bolger, and Laura Johnson. 2020. "A Nationally Representative Survey of Faith and Work: Demographic Subgroup Differences around Calling and Conflict" Religions 11, no. 6: 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11060287