Togaviridae | Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus (VEEV) | Antiviral effect | ↓ Virus titer in supernatant | 0.5, 1 and 5 mM | MOI 1 (Guajira strain) | Murine Na2 neuroblastoma cell line | [83] |
| | | ↓ Virus titer in brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 PFU (Goajira strain) | NMRI mice | [83] |
| | | ↓ Virus titer in blood and brain | 250, 500 and 1000 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 100 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [79] |
| | Antioxidant activity | ↓ NO | 0.025, 0.1, 0.25, 0.50, 1 and 1.8 mM | MOI 1 (Enzootic strain E-100) | Murine Na2 neuroblastoma cells | [86] |
| | | | 100 and 150 µg/mL | (Guajira Strain) | Murine splenocyte | [88] |
| | | ↓ NO in blood and brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 LD50 (Guajira strain) | NMRI mice | [85,87] |
| | Reduction of lipid peroxidation | ↓ MDA | 0.1, 0.5 and 1 mM | MOI 1 (Guajira strain) | Murine Na2 neuroblastoma cell line | [83,85] |
| | | ↓ MDA in brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI mice | [83,85] |
| | | ↓ Nitrite ↓ iNOS | 0.025, 0.1, 0.25, 0.50, 1 and 1.8 mM | MOI 1 (Enzootic strain E-100) | Murine Na2 neuroblastoma cells | [86] |
| | Anti-apoptotic effects | ↓ Apoptotic cell death | 0.1, 0.5 and 1 mM | MOI 1 (Guajira strain) | Murine Na2 neuroblastoma cell line | [85] |
| | | ↓ Apoptotic cell death in brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI mice | [85] |
| | Immunomodulatory effects | ↑ IL-1β in blood and brain, ↑ TNF-α and IFN-γ in blood | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 LD50 (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [87,91,92] |
| | Anti-inflammatory effects | ↓ TNF-α in brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments | 10 LD50 (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [91] |
| | | ↓ CD200 in brain | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI mice | [85] |
| | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals | Light-induced melatonin production (400 and 2500 lux) | 100 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [98] |
| | | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals ↓ Onset of the disease | 250, 500 and 1000 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 100 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [79] |
| | | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10 PFU (Goajira strain) | NMRI mice | [83,85] |
| | | ↑ Survival rate of immunodepressed infected animals | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 100 PFU (Guajira strain) | NMRI-IVIC mice | [96] |
| Semliki Forest virus (SFV) | Antiviral effect | ↓ Virus titer in blood | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10, 100 PFU | CD1 mice | [78] |
| | Prolongs survival rate | ↓ Onset of disease ↑ Survival rate of infected animals | 500 µg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 10, 100 PFU | CD1 mice | [78] |
Picornaviridae | Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals ↓ Paralysis | 1 µg/day | 2 × 108 dilutions of virus | BALB/c mice | [99] |
| Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) | Anti-apoptotic effects | ↓ BAX, cleaved caspase-9 and cleaved caspase-3 in heart ↑ BCL-2 and BCL-2/BAX ratio in heart ↓ Apoptotic cells in heart | 14.4 mg/kg/day | 105.5 TCID50 | BALB/c mice | [89] |
| | Regulation of autophagic effects | on day 7 (heart) ↑ Autophagosomes ↑ LC3-II/LC3-I ratio and beclin-1 ↓ p62 on day 14 (heart) ↓ Autophagosomes ↓ LC3-II/LC3-I ratio and beclin-1 ↑ p62 | 14.4 mg/kg/day | 105.5 TCID50 | BALB/c mice | [89] |
| | Anti-inflammatory effects | ↓ TNF-α and IL-1 in heart ↓ Inflammatory cell infiltration, necrosis, and interstitial edema in myocardial tissue | 14.4 mg/kg/day | 105.5 TCID50 | BALB/c mice | [89] |
| | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals ↓ Severity of the myocarditis ↑ Cardiac Function | 14.4 mg/kg/day | 105.5 TCID50 | BALB/c mice | [89] |
Flaviviridae | West Nile virus (WNV) | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of stress-exposed animals | 5 µg/mouse (pre- and post-treatments) | 2 × 105 PFU (WN-25 attenuated variant) | CD1 mice | [78] |
| Dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) | Antiviral effect | No effects | 50 and 500 μM | MOI 2 and 5 (strain 16681) | Human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cell line | [103] |
Orthomyxoviridae | Influenza A virus (IAV) | Antiviral effect | ↓ Virus titer in supernatant (co-treatment with ribavirin) | 0.1, 0.25 and 0.5 mM | MOI 0.5 (H5N1) | Human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line | [81] |
| | Immunomodulatory effects | ↑ IL-27, IL-10 and TGF-β in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid | 20, 200 mg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 1000 PFU (H5N1) | BALB/c mice | [81] |
| | Anti-inflammatory effects | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ and p-NF-κB in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid ↓ Th1 CD4 cells and Inflammatory CD8 T cells in spleen | 20, 200 mg/kg (pre- and post-treatments) | 1000 PFU (H5N1) | BALB/c mice | [81] |
| | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals | 20, 200 mg/kg (pre-and post-treatments) | 1000 PFU (H5N1) | BALB/c mice | [81] |
| | | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals (co-treatment with ribavirin) | 200 mg/kg/day | 1000 PFU (H5N1) | BALB/c mice | [81] |
Paramyxoviridae | Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) | Antioxidant activity | ↓ NO, MDA and ·OH in lung ↑ GSH and SOD in lung | 5 mg/kg (orally administered twice daily for 3 days) | 1 × 107 PFU/mL (Long strain) | BALB/c mice | [84] |
| | Anti-inflammatory effects | ↓ TLR3, NF-κB/p65 and TNF-α ↓ iNOS | 10−7, 10−6 and 10−5 M | MOI 1 (Long strain) | Mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cell line | [94] |
| | | ↓ TNF-α in blood | 5 mg/kg (orally administered twice daily for 3 days) | 1 × 107 PFU/mL (Long strain) | BALB/c mice | [84] |
| Human parainfluenza virus type 3 (HPIV3) | Antiviral effect | ↓ Virus titer in supernatant (co-treatment with IFN-γ) | 0.05, 0.25 and 0.49 mM | MOI 1 | Human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line | [104] |
Caliciviridae | Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) | Antiviral effect | ↓ RHDV VP60 in liver | 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [80,82] |
| | Antioxidant activity | ↓ GSSG/GSH ratio in liver | 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [82,90] |
| | | Suppression of ER stress in liver ↓ CHOP ↓ BiP/GRP78 | 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [82] |
| | Anti-apoptotic effects | Extrinsic apoptosis pathway (liver) ↓ TNF-R1 ↓ p-JNK and caspase-8 ↑ c-FLIP Intrinsic apoptosis pathway (liver) ↓ BAX, cytosolic Cyt c and caspase-9 ↑ BCL-2 and BCL-xL ↓ caspase-3 and PARP-1 | 10 and 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [82,90] |
| | Regulation of autophagic effects | ↓ LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, p62/SQSTM1, beclin-1, Atg5, Atg12 and Atg16L1 in liver | 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [82] |
| | Anti-inflammatory effects | ↓ TLR4, HMGB1, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, CRP, MMP-9, SphK1/S1P, NF-κB p50 and p65 subunits and p-IκB-α in liver ↑ DAF/CD55 in liver | 10 and 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [82,95] |
| | Stimulation of regenerative mechanisms | ↑ HGF/c-Met, EGF/EGFR, PDGF-B/PDGFRβ, VEGF/VEGFR in liver ↓ p-JAK in liver ↑ ERK and STAT3 in liver | 10 and 20 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hpi. | 2 × 104 HA units | New Zealand white rabbits | [95] |
Parvoviridae | Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) | Prolongs survival rate | ↑ Survival rate of infected animals | 2.7 mg melatonin crystals homogeneously suspended in medical grade silastic polymer | Natural infection | Mink | [97] |
Retroviridae | Murine leukemia virus (MLV) | Immunomodulatory effects | Splenocyte ↑ B cell and T cell proliferation ↑ IL-2 and IFN-γ ↓ IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10 and TNF-α | 49.8 µg/mouse/day | 4.5 log10 PFU/mL (LP-BM5 retrovirus) | C57BL/6 mice | [93] |
| | | ↓ The loss of hepatic Vitamin E | 49.8 µg/mouse/day | 4.5 log10 PFU/mL (LP-BM5 retrovirus) | C57BL/6 mice | [93] |
| | Reduction of lipid peroxidation | ↓ Hepatic conjugated dienes | 49.8 µg/mouse/day | 4.5 log10 PFU/mL (LP-BM5 retrovirus) | C57BL/6 mice | [93] |
Papillomaviridae | Human papillomavirus (HPV) | Anti-tumor | ↓ Proliferation, migration, adhesion and viability of tumor cells ↓ HPV-16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins | 1 mM | HPV-16 genome encodes oncoproteins | TC-1 murine tumor cell line | [105] |
| | Improved vaccine efficacy | Co-treatment with DL-1MT ↑ Anti-tumor protective effects of gDE7 vaccine ↑ IFN-γ producing CD8+ T cells ↓ Tumor growth | 0.2 mg/200 μL/mouse for 4 weeks every 48 h | Transplanted with TC-1 cells encoding HPV-16 oncoproteins | C57BL/6 mice | [105] |
Filoviridae | Ebola virus (EBOV) | Protection of the integrity of blood vessels | ↓ Rho/ROCK signaling ↓ Vascular permeability | 0, 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 µM for 2 h | 1 mg/mL of Ebola virus-like particles | Micro vessel (chip-based assay) | [106] |