Differences and Similarities in Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary Development between Children with Down Syndrome and Young Typically Developing Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Expressive Vocabulary, a Specific Area of Weakness in Children with Down Syndrome?
Stages of Early Expressive Vocabulary Development | TD | DS |
---|---|---|
Developmental process | Rapid growth during early childhood [25,26,27] | Slow growth during childhood [17,28] |
Utterance of first words | At the age of approximately 1 year [29,30] | At the age of approximately 1–9 years [31], but large individual variation [32]. Some say their first words at the same time as TD children [33] |
Achievement of 50 words | At the age of approximately 18 months [32,34] | For 25%, at approximately 3 years of age; for 50%, at approximately 4 years; and for 75%, at approximately 5 years [32]. Large individual variation [35] |
Onset of sentence production, i.e., combination of two words or more | At the age of approximately 18 months [36] or after reaching 50 words [34,36] | Approximately 3.5–5 years of age [37,38] or after reaching 100 words [39] |
2.1. Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary Development
2.2. The Current Study
- What variables at 3 years of age predict expressive vocabulary in typically developing children at ages 3, 4 and 5 years?
- What variables at 6 years of age predict expressive vocabulary in children with Down syndrome at ages 6, 7 and 8 years (first three years of primary school)?
- What differences and similarities exist between the estimated effects of the predictors of expressive vocabulary between children with Down syndrome and typically developing children?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Data Collection Procedure
3.3. Measures
3.4. Expressive Vocabulary
3.5. Receptive Vocabulary
3.6. Auditory Memory
3.7. Phonological Awareness
3.8. Oral Motor Skills
3.9. Nonverbal Mental Ability
3.10. Parental Questionnaires
3.11. Socioemotional Functioning
3.12. Background Questionnaire, Socioeconomic Status (SES)
3.13. Background Questionnaire, Home Literacy Environment
3.14. Background Questionnaire, Reading Skills
3.15. Background Questionnaire, Language Problems in the Family
3.16. Data Analyses
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.2. Predictors of Expressive Language
4.3. Change over Time
5. Discussion
5.1. Development of Expressive Vocabulary
5.2. Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary in Typically Developing Children
5.3. Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary in Children with Down Syndrome
5.4. Differences and Similarities in Predictors and Predictive Values
5.5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Down Syndrome | Typically Developing Children with a Similar Nonverbal Mental Age | Sign. Test of Differences in Beta between Groups | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 43) | (n = 57) | ||||||||
b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Intercept | 0.23 | −0.7 to 0.53 | 0.14 | 1.07 | 0.81 to 1.32 | <0.001 | |||
Gender ¹ | 0.19 | −0.18 to 0.55 | 0.30 | −0.08 | −0.39 to 0.23 | 0.62 | −0.27 | −0.75 to 0.21 | 0.27 |
Nonverbal mental age T1 2 | 0.02 | −0.18 to 0.21 | 0.86 | 0.09 | −0.09 to 0.27 | 0.33 | 0.07 | −0.20 to 0.34 | 0.60 |
Mean parental education T1 | −0.02 | −0.20 to 0.15 | 0.78 | −0.05 | −0.20 to 0.10 | 0.50 | −0.03 | −0.26 to 0.20 | 0.83 |
Home literacy environment T1 2 | 0.08 | −0.12 to 0.27 | 0.43 | 0.08 | −0.07 to 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.00 | −0.24 to 0.25 | 0.99 |
Language problems in family T1 ¹ | −0.04 | −0.45 to 0.38 | 0.86 | −0.09 | −0.41 to 0.23 | 0.59 | −0.05 | −0.58 to 0.47 | 0.84 |
Socioemotional functioning T1 2 | 0.00 | −0.19 to 0.20 | 0.96 | 0.04 | −0.18 to 0.27 | 0.71 | 0.04 | −0.26 to 0.34 | 0.80 |
Auditory memory T1 2 | 0.58 | 0.21 to 0.94 | 0.003 | 0.13 | −0.05 to 0.31 | 0.15 | −0.45 | −0.85 to −0.04 | 0.03 |
Oral motor skills T1 2 | 0.20 | −0.04 to 0.44 | 0.10 | 0.03 | −0.11 to 0.18 | 0.66 | −0.17 | −0.45 to 0.11 | 0.24 |
Phonological awareness T1 2 | 0.02 | −0.14 to 0.18 | 0.82 | −0.03 | −0.36 to 0.30 | 0.87 | −0.05 | −0.41 to 0.32 | 0.80 |
Receptive vocabulary T1 2 | 0.32 | 0.07 to 0.57 | 0.01 | 0.16 | −0.05 to 0.37 | 0.14 | −0.16 | −0.49 to 0.17 | 0.34 |
Early reading skills T1 2 | 0.06 | −0.08 to 0.20 | 0.41 | 0.16 | −0.12 to 0.44 | 0.25 | 0.10 | −0.21 to 0.42 | 0.52 |
Time ¹ | |||||||||
T1–T2 | 0.51 | 0.34 to 0.67 | <0.001 | 0.75 | 0.60 to 0.89 | <0.001 | 0.24 | 0.02 to 0.46 | 0.03 |
T2–T3 | 0.30 | 0.13 to 0.46 | <0.001 | 0.64 | 0.50 to 0.78 | <0.001 | 0.34 | 0.12 to 0.56 | 0.002 |
T1–T3 | 0.80 | 0.64 to 0.97 | <0.001 | 1.38 | 1.24 to 1.53 | <0.001 | 0.58 | 0.36 to 0.80 | <0.001 |
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Down Syndrome | Typically Developing | Group Difference | Group Difference Controlled for Gender, Parental Education Level and Nonverbal Mental Age ¹ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 43) | (n = 57) | |||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | b | p-Value | b | p-Value | |
Age T1 (months) | 75.8 | 3.5 | 36.7 | 4.2 | −1.97 | <0.001 | −1.98 | <0.001 |
Mean parental education T1 1 | 2.5 | 1.1 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 0.07 | 0.73 | 0.08 | 0.71 |
Nonverbal mental age T1 4 | 12.2 | 5.4 | 12.6 | 4.6 | 0.08 | 0.71 | 0.11 | 0.61 |
Socioemotional functioning T1 2,4 | 10.7 | 5.1 | 6.7 | 3.6 | −0.84 | <0.001 | −0.84 | <0.001 |
Auditory memory T1 4 | −0.5 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.99 | <0.001 | 0.95 | <0.001 |
Oral motor skills T1 3,4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | −0.62 | 0.003 | −0.57 | 0.005 |
Phonological awareness T1 4 | −0.2 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.53 | 0.008 | 0.48 | 0.01 |
Receptive vocabulary T1 | 23.2 | 11.4 | 26.2 | 11.0 | 0.26 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.30 |
Expressive vocabulary T1 | 8.6 | 5.8 | 12.4 | 4.2 | 0.72 | <0.001 | 0.68 | <0.001 |
Expressive vocabulary T2 | 12.0 | 6.6 | 17.4 | 4.3 | 0.90 | <0.001 | 0.85 | <0.001 |
Expressive vocabulary T3 ¹ | 14.0 | 6.3 | 21.8 | 4.3 | 1.20 | <0.001 | 1.15 | <0.001 |
Down Syndrome | Typically Developing Children with a Similar Nonverbal Mental Age | Sign. Test of Differences in Beta between Groups | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 43) | (n = 57) | ||||||||
b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Gender ¹ | 0.10 | −0.33 to 0.54 | 0.64 | 0.06 | −0.32 to 0.43 | 0.77 | −0.05 | −0.62 to 0.53 | 0.87 |
Nonverbal mental age T1 ² | 0.41 | 0.23 to 0.59 | <0.001 | 0.21 | 0.03 to 0.39 | 0.02 | −0.20 | −0.45 to 0.06 | 0.13 |
Mean parental education T1 | 0.15 | −0.07 to 0.37 | 0.18 | 0.03 | −0.15 to 0.22 | 0.73 | −0.12 | −0.41 to 0.17 | 0.42 |
Home literacy environment T1 ² | 0.28 | 0.04 to 0.52 | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.01 to 0.34 | 0.04 | −0.10 | −0.39 to 0.19 | 0.48 |
Language problems in family T1 ¹ | −0.43 | −0.94 to 0.07 | 0.09 | −0.01 | −0.43 to 0.41 | 0.97 | 0.43 | −0.23 to 1.09 | 0.20 |
Socioemotional functioning T1 ² | 0.20 | −0.00 to 0.40 | 0.05 | 0.03 | −0.21 to 0.28 | 0.80 | -0.17 | −0.49 to 0.15 | 0.29 |
Auditory memory T1 ² | 0.96 | 0.67 to 1.25 | <0.001 | 0.28 | 0.14 to 0.43 | <0.001 | −0.68 | −1.00 to −0.36 | <0.001 |
Oral motor skills T1 ² | 0.61 | 0.37 to 0.84 | <0.001 | 0.16 | 0.00 to 0.32 | 0.04 | −0.44 | −0.73 to −0.16 | 0.002 |
Phonological awareness T1 ² | 0.36 | 0.21 to 0.51 | <0.001 | 0.31 | 0.03 to 0.60 | 0.03 | -0.05 | −0.37 to 0.27 | 0.77 |
Receptive vocabulary T1 ² | 0.61 | 0.45 to 0.77 | <0.001 | 0.34 | 0.19 to 0.48 | <0.001 | −0.27 | −0.49 to −0.05 | 0.02 |
Early reading skills T1 ² | 0.17 | −0.00 to 0.34 | 0.06 | 0.28 | −0.05 to 0.62 | 0.10 | 0.12 | −0.26 to 0.49 | 0.54 |
Time (change in expressive vocabulary) ¹ | |||||||||
T1–T2 | 0.51 | 0.34 to 0.67 | <0.001 | 0.75 | 0.60 to 0.89 | <0.001 | 0.24 | 0.02 to 0.46 | 0.03 |
T2–T3 | 0.30 | 0.13 to 0.46 | <0.001 | 0.64 | 0.50 to 0.78 | <0.001 | 0.34 | 0.12 to 0.56 | 0.002 |
T1–T3 | 0.80 | 0.64 to 0.97 | <0.001 | 1.38 | 1.24 to 1.53 | <0.001 | 0.58 | 0.36 to 0.80 | <0.001 |
Down Syndrome | Typically Developing Children with a Similar Nonverbal Mental Age | Sign. Test of Differences in Beta between Groups | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 43) | (n = 57) | ||||||||
b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | b | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Gender ¹ | −0.03 | −0.42 to 0.37 | 0.90 | 0.06 | −0.28 to 0.40 | 0.71 | 0.09 | −0.43 to 0.61 | 0.73 |
Nonverbal mental age T1 ² | 0.41 | 0.22 to 0.59 | <0.001 | 0.22 | 0.04 to 0.40 | 0.02 | −0.18 | −0.44 to 0.07 | 0.16 |
Mean parental education T1 ² | 0.14 | −0.06 to 0.34 | 0.17 | 0.06 | −0.11 to 0.23 | 0.47 | −0.08 | −0.34 to 0.18 | 0.55 |
Home literacy environment T1 ² | 0.25 | 0.03 to 0.47 | 0.03 | 0.15 | −0.00 to 0.31 | 0.05 | −0.09 | −0.36 to 0.17 | 0.48 |
Language problems in family T1 ¹ | 0.35 | −0.12 to 0.81 | 0.15 | −0.03 | −0.41 to 0.35 | 0.87 | −0.31 | −0.92 to 0.29 | 0.30 |
Socioemotional functioning T1 ² | 0.08 | −0.11 to 0.28 | 0.39 | 0.10 | −0.13 to 0.33 | 0.38 | 0.02 | −0.29 to 0.33 | 0.90 |
Auditory memory T1 ² | 0.83 | 0.54 to 1.12 | <0.001 | 0.23 | 0.09 to 0.37 | 0.002 | −0.60 | −0.92 to −0.28 | <0.001 |
Oral motor skills T1 ² | 0.48 | 0.25 to 0.71 | 0.001 | 0.12 | −0.03 to 0.27 | 0.11 | −0.36 | −0.63 to −0.09 | 0.01 |
Phonological awareness T1 ² | 0.30 | 0.15 to 0.44 | <0.001 | 0.18 | −0.12 to 0.48 | 0.24 | −0.12 | −0.44 to 0.20 | 0.47 |
Receptive vocabulary T1 ² | 0.55 | 0.37 to 0.73 | <0.001 | 0.30 | 0.14 to 0.45 | <0.001 | −0.25 | −0.47 to −0.04 | 0.02 |
Early reading skills T1 ² | 0.13 | −0.04 to 0.29 | 0.13 | 0.17 | −0.14 to 0.48 | 0.29 | 0.04 | −0.30 to 0.39 | 0.81 |
Time ¹ | |||||||||
T1–T2 | 0.51 | 0.34 to 0.67 | <0.001 | 0.75 | 0.60 to 0.89 | <0.001 | 0.24 | 0.02 to 0.46 | 0.03 |
T2–T3 | 0.30 | 0.13 to 0.46 | <0.001 | 0.64 | 0.50 to 0.78 | <0.001 | 0.34 | 0.12 to 0.56 | 0.002 |
T1–T3 | 0.80 | 0.64 to 0.97 | <0.001 | 1.38 | 1.24 to 1.53 | <0.001 | 0.58 | 0.36 to 0.80 | <0.001 |
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Næss, K.-A.B.; Ostad, J.; Nygaard, E. Differences and Similarities in Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary Development between Children with Down Syndrome and Young Typically Developing Children. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11030312
Næss K-AB, Ostad J, Nygaard E. Differences and Similarities in Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary Development between Children with Down Syndrome and Young Typically Developing Children. Brain Sciences. 2021; 11(3):312. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11030312
Chicago/Turabian StyleNæss, Kari-Anne B., Johanne Ostad, and Egil Nygaard. 2021. "Differences and Similarities in Predictors of Expressive Vocabulary Development between Children with Down Syndrome and Young Typically Developing Children" Brain Sciences 11, no. 3: 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11030312