Community Cornerstones: An Analysis of HBCU Law School Clinical Programs’ Impact on Surrounding Communities

Abstract

Fifty million Americans, nearly 15% of the population, live below the federal poverty level, often facing civil legal issues without representation. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) have long served as economic engines and vital resources for their communities. HBCU law schools uphold this legacy by preparing students for legal careers while instilling a commitment to service, particularly for underserved citizens who lack access to quality legal representation. This research examines the dual mission of HBCU law schools—educating students and serving local communities—through a systematic document analysis of publicly available materials and literature on law school clinical programs. The findings identify four key community performance indicators that define the community impact of HBCU law schools: advocacy, engagement, client outcomes, and representation. These indicators reflect a shared commitment across all institutions to addressing systemic inequities through clinical legal education, reinforcing the role of HBCU law schools as both training grounds for future attorneys and essential pillars of justice in their communities.

1. Introduction

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were founded to provide higher education opportunities for Black residents, serving as an avenue to address discriminatory practices such as segregated education, housing, and financial discrimination (Dyson 2007). There are 99 HBCUs operating in 21 states serving nearly 290,000 students (Anderson and Hatfield 2024). Most HBCUs are located in the southern region of the United States and have a student population that is predominantly Black, although some now enroll a majority non-Black student population (Anderson and Hatfield 2024). Despite facing significant challenges, including underfunding, HBCUs serve as a critical driver of their regions’ economic and social prosperity (Anderson and Hatfield 2024; UNCF 2024).

While much has been written about HBCUs as purveyors of higher education, far less research is available on HBCU law schools (Franklin et al. 2023; Williams et al. 2019). In the tradition of HBCUs, these law schools are committed to providing not only legal education to their students but also economic and social benefits to the communities they serve. The primary vehicle through which HBCU law schools seek to serve their various constituents is through their clinical programs. These programs address critical access-to-justice issues for residents in their respective communities while providing their students with practical training that will aid them in achieving their educational goals.

Of the 99 HBCUs, only seven (7) have law schools, yet they produce 50% of Black lawyers and 80% of Black judges in the United States (Lomax 2024). A brief historical overview of the seven HBCU law schools will illustrate the proud history of HBCU law schools and establish a context for our analysis.

HBCUs represent three percent of higher education institutions in the US; however, they graduate 20% of African American students, indicating their disproportionate impact on educational outcomes (Franklin et al. 2023; Nelms 2010). As of 2022, the total number of students enrolled across all post-secondary institutions was 15.397 million, which is a 7% decline since 2019 (National Center for Education Statistics 2024).

The genesis of HBCUs can be traced to the Morrill Act of 1862, which granted states with 30,000 acres of land to establish public universities intended to educate all citizens. However, the first Morrill Act failed and refused to address the educational needs of Black citizens. In response, the Second Morrill Act of 1890 was passed. It mandated states to provide separate but equal institutions for Black students, which led to the creation of land-grant HBCUs primarily in the southern United States (Simon 1963). From their inception, HBCUs have faced chronic underfunding and systemic challenges.

Given the history of HBCU land-grant institutions and institutions serving Black students and faculty members in general, it is not surprising that HBCU law schools have focused on civil rights and, more generally, on serving underrepresented groups. This focus also gave rise to a broader commitment to make a tangible difference in the communities where they are located by addressing systemic challenges through legal expertise. This mission is realized primarily through the clinical law programs of HBCU law schools.

Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University College of Law (FAMU Law) was originally established in 1949 after five students, denied admission to the University of Florida, leveraged the Plessy v. Ferguson decision to demand equal access to graduate education (Florida A & M University 2024a). Following unanimous approval by the Florida legislature in 2000, the law school was re-established in 2002 and later relocated from Tallahassee to Orlando in 2006. FAMU Law’s founding mission is to “serve as a beacon of hope and catalyst for change by providing access to excellent educational training and opportunities to generations of students seeking to serve the needs of traditionally underserved people and communities locally, nationally and internationally…” (Florida A & M University 2024a).

Howard University School of Law (HUSL) in Washington, D.C., was founded in 1869 as one of the first institutions dedicated to providing legal education to Black students (Howard University 2024). Charles Hamilton Houston, who served as the law school’s dean from 1930 to 1935, played a pivotal role in shaping the school’s mission to train “social engineers” who would use the law to address racial injustice (Howard University School of Law 2024d). Houston emphasized that lawyers should work to improve the lives of the underprivileged and fight for social change. Today, the mission of Howard Law School is to “[provide] the professional leadership necessary to advocate and defend the rights of all, but particularly of African Americans and other minorities…[and] to: Educate and enable students to develop their highest capabilities and skills as lawyers; Engage as an institution in the active pursuit of solutions to domestic and international legal, social, economic, and political problems that are of particular concern to minority groups; and Imbue its students with dedication to excellence and commitment to the solutions to those problems” (Howard University School of Law 2024d).

North Carolina Central University School of Law (NCCU Law) in Durham, North Carolina, first opened its doors in 1939. From inception, NCCU Law was characterized by its keen focus on representation and diversity in its faculty and student body as well as its focus on training public-interest-minded attorneys to support the legal needs of the poor. In fact, NCCU Law’s first graduate, Robert Bond (class of 1943), went on to bring the first healthcare discrimination case to be tried in court (Davis 2024). The school adopted a mission to “provide a quality, personalized, practice-oriented, and affordable legal education to historically underrepresented students from diverse backgrounds to increase diversity in the legal profession. [NCCU Law] empowers our graduates to become highly competent and socially responsible lawyers and leaders committed to public service and to meeting the needs of under-served communities” (North Carolina Central University 2020).

Southern University Law Center (SULC) in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, was founded in 1947. SULC was established to provide Black students with the opportunity to attend law school as Louisiana State University Law School would not admit students of color. Named the Southern University School of Law until its name changed to Southern University Law Center in 1985, SULC has the largest enrollment out of the six American Bar Association (ABA)-accredited HBCU law schools. The mission and tradition of the Law Center is to provide access and opportunity to a diverse group of students from underrepresented racial, ethnic, and socio-economic groups to obtain a high-quality legal education with training in both civil and common law. Additionally, [SULC’s] mission is “to train a cadre of lawyers equipped with the skills necessary for the practice of law and for positions of leadership in society…[SULC] value[s] the importance of connecting with and contributing to local and global communities through service, advocacy, and partnership” (Southern University Law Center 2024b).

Thurgood Marshall School of Law (TSU Law) in Houston, Texas, was founded in 1946 as the Texas State University for Negroes School of Law. The school later changed its name to the Law School at Texas Southern University in 1951. In 1978, in honor of Thurgood Marshall, the school changed its name to the Thurgood Marshall School of Law at Texas Southern University. Thurgood Marshall School of Law’s mission “is to prepare a diverse group of students for leadership roles in the legal profession, business, and government. In keeping with its rich tradition as an HBCU, the Law School continues to train and educate large numbers of African American and Hispanic lawyers. At the same time, the Law School has opened its doors to students from all backgrounds, gaining recognition as one of the most diverse law schools in the country. As part of a special-purpose institution for urban programming, the Law School is also committed to making an impact on urban communities” (Thurgood Marshall School of Law 2024).

University of the District of Columbia David A. Clarke School of Law (UDC Law) was founded in 1972 by Edgar S. and Jean Camper Cahn. It had two predecessor institutions: the Antioch School of Law and the District of Columbia School of Law. UDC Law became known for advocating for marginalized groups, especially low-income and minority communities. It also pioneered the clinical legal education model, which has been widely adopted by law schools across the nation, including non-HBCU law schools. When UDC Law merged with the University of the District of Columbia (UDC) in 1996, it officially became a Historically Black College and University (HBCU) law school (University of the District of Columbia 2021). This designation reflects the school’s commitment to public service, diversity, and assisting underrepresented populations. The designation was also a nod to Jean Camper Cahn as the first Black woman to co-establish a law school and serve as its dean. UDC Law’s primary mission continues to be to provide a comprehensive legal education that integrates theoretical knowledge with practical skills, to actively recruit students from traditionally underrepresented groups in the legal field, and to address the legal needs of low-income residents through its legal clinics (University of the District of Columbia 2021).

Miles College of Law (MCL) located in Birmingham, Alabama, and one of two non-ABA-accredited law schools in Alabama, was founded in 1974. The college primarily offers a part-time law school curriculum (Miles College of Law 2024). The graduates of Miles School of Law are eligible to take the Alabama Bar Examination. In contrast to its sister HBCU law schools, MCL is not fully accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA). It is therefore excluded from the analysis subsequently described in this paper.

As this brief review of HBCU law schools illustrates, HBCUs have long served as a lifeline for underserved residents in their communities (Kujovich 1993). Senator Raphael Warnock captured the essence of their mission during a 2024 interview when he stated that HBCUs have been doing so much for so many for so long for so very little that people just expect them to pull a rabbit out of their hat. He concluded: We really need to invest in our HBCUs (Chang 2021).

Fifty-million Americans, including 15 million children and eight million seniors, live below the federal poverty threshold (Legal Services Corporation 2025). Three out of four low-income families experienced one or more civil legal problems, yet most received little to no legal assistance (Legal Services Corporation 2025). Exacerbating this issue, the ABA reports that on average there are less than three available civil legal aid attorneys per 10,000 Americans living in poverty (Sloan and Sloan 2023). The density of lawyers in the southern states of the US is significantly below the national average (American Bar Association 2024). Correspondingly, the highest concentration of households with unaddressed civil legal issues can be found in the southern United States (Legal Service Corporation 2023). Here the HBCU law schools are especially well positioned to address the legal challenges of their local communities and residents (Legal Service Corporation 2023).

This study explores HBCU law school clinical programs with a focus on assessing whether HBCU law schools achieve their mission of serving the residents and communities where they are located. The methodology used to assess the contributions of HBCU law schools is a systematic review of publicly available information regarding their mission and goals. In addition, we conducted a review of the literature on the community engagement of institutions of higher education to ascertain performance indicators for the effectiveness of the HBCU law schools in our sample. The analysis concludes that HBCU law schools meet not only their expected educational commitments of legal education for their students, but also their broader mission of serving the residents and communities in which they reside.

2. Materials and Methods

The methodology applied to assess the success of HBCU law schools in meeting their two-pronged mission of educating law professionals and serving underserved communities consists of a two-step process. We first conducted a literature review of commonly used indicators to assess the community impact of institutions of higher education. Secondly, we used the identified indicators to conduct a systematic document analysis of publicly available information regarding the community mission and goals of HBCU law schools. Bowen (2009) confirms that the use of document analysis in collaboration with other qualitative methods can assist researchers in interpreting meaning, enhancing comprehension, and uncovering valuable insights (Bowen 2009, p. 29). By examining publicly available information regarding the community service component of the mission of HBCU law schools, the study tests the hypothesis with respect to whether law schools deliver on their commitment to make a difference in the communities they serve.

A common vehicle HBCU law schools use to meet their community service mission are the law clinics they offer to local residents and organizations. The analysis therefore focuses specifically on the clinical law programs of HBCU law schools. The six ABA-accredited HBCU law schools in our sample offer clinical law programs on a range of relevant topics, including Affordable Housing and Displacement, Poverty and Economic Inequities, Youth Justice Involvement, Immigration Advocacy, Crime and Public Safety, and Access to Legal Representation. These areas were selected based on a thorough analysis of publicly available information about HBCU law clinics.

A review of web-based and print materials from the six HBCU law schools in our sample, published between 2014 and 2024, forms the basis for our systematic review. It confirmed their shared community-focused missions and commitment to practical, impact-driven student learning. To account for data that may appear on the university’s website rather than the corresponding HBCU law school’s website, a search of both the university and the law school websites was conducted. The keywords used included law clinic, legal clinic, and clinical program.

A secondary search was conducted through the ProQuest and JStor research databases, newspaper articles, books, and book chapters using each law school’s name in the search tool to identify data that would provide relevant information. A tertiary search was conducted via Google Scholar using the same search terms (name of the school and law clinic) to identify additional evidence or articles that may not have appeared in the primary and secondary searches. In total, 981 articles were reviewed. Forty-four (44) articles were selected according to the impact areas and categorized into four distinct groups. Figure 1 summarizes the search results based on the inclusion criteria used.

The literature review of the community engagement of higher education institutions revealed four distinct categories we refer to as community performance indicators. They are advocacy, engagement, client outcomes, and representation. The six HBCU law schools were then analyzed based on their frequencies in terms of the four identified community engagement indicators.

3. Analysis

3.1. Clinical Programs at HBCU Law Schools

Clinical legal programs are the hallmark of HBCU law schools because they provide students with practical experience with actual clients under the supervision of experienced attorneys. Law school clinical programs play a pivotal role in legal education beyond skills development. These programs often emphasize community engagement, prepare law students for the demands of legal practice, and encourage them to contribute to society as ethical and engaged legal professionals. Community engagement fosters a sense of social responsibility and awareness among students, encouraging them to understand and address broader societal issues (Kingston et al. 2014). Two of the pioneers of clinical legal education, Jean Camper Cahn and Edgar S. Cahn, founded Antioch School of Law (now UDC Law) in 1972. The impetus for the creation of Antioch School of Law was their Yale Law School journal article entitled the War on poverty: A civilian perspective, which emphasized the need for widely accessible legal representation regardless of economic income (Cahn and Cahn 1964). “The Antioch School of Law emerged as a notable advocate for the rights of marginalized populations, particularly individuals of low socioeconomic status and minority backgrounds. Moreover, the institution was steadfast in its commitment to training future lawyers with a strong inclination towards public interest work, pioneering a comprehensive clinical legal education model that has since been embraced, to varying degrees, by the majority of law schools across the nation” (University of the District of Columbia 2021).

The popularity of clinical law programs grew further as he demand for access to legal services at all levels increased and was recognized as “essential” (Grossman 1973). Practicing attorneys and law school administrators recognized the gap in available legal representation for civil legal matters and embraced the idea of law school students helping clients in exchange for credit.

While the effectiveness of HBCU clinical law programs on student learning outcomes is not the focus of our analysis, it must nonetheless be mentioned. Based on the self-assessment of the HBCU law schools, clinical law programs have a significant positive impact on the learning experience of law students. These impacts include helping students to develop culturally sensitive communication skills, professional competence, and a practical and critical understanding of the law (Evans and Hyams 2008; Falati 2020; Hyams 2006). In fact, these learning experiences are so profoundly important that the Bar Associations of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, areas that experience a dearth of practicing attorneys, have begun the process of considering the inclusion of apprenticeships as criteria for being admitted to the bar (National Jurist 2024).

The six accredited HBCU law schools offered a variety of clinics to their students during the ten-year timeframe of our analysis (see

Table 1. Legal clinics offered at ABA-accredited HBCU law schools.

Legal Clinic	FAMU	HUSL	NCCU	SULC	TSU	UDC
Family Law		X	X	X	X	X
Estates Wills and Trusts		X		X	X
Tax	X		X	X		X
Housing	X	X	X	X		X
Immigration					X	X
Civil Rights		X				X
Community			X	X		X
Youth Justice	X	X	X	X		X
Intellectual Property		X	X	X
Criminal Defense	X	X	X	X	X	X
Economic Justice	X	X		X
Worker’s Compensation				X		X
Mediation Clinic	X
Movement Lawyering		X

below). Law students select a clinic during their course of study under the supervision of experienced attorneys. While there are a variety of clinical offerings that stand out, there is considerable consistency in the clinical programs offered.

FAMU Law boasts six clinics, including their Tax Clinic, Youth Justice Clinic, Criminal Defense Clinic, Housing Clinic, Economic Justice Clinic, and Mediation Clinic. There were 40 seats available in the 2023–2024 academic year for student participation in the clinical program and 296 simulation courses (Howard University School of Law 2024a).

HUSL’s Clinical Law Center offers ten clinics, including the Criminal Justice Clinic, Estate Planning and Heirs Property Clinic, Fair Housing Clinic, Civil Rights Clinic, Investor Justice and Education Clinic, Intellectual Property Patent Clinic, Intellectual Property Trademark Clinic, Movement Lawyering Clinic, Reentry Clinic, and Child Welfare Clinic (Howard University 2024). In the 2023–2024 academic year, HUSL offered 264 clinic seats, 39 seminars, and 436 simulation courses (Howard University School of Law 2024a). While participation is not mandatory, students are strongly encouraged to engage in these clinics to gain practical experience and serve the community.

NCCU Law offers eight clinics in the following legal areas: Low-income Taxpayer, Family Law, Criminal Defense, Civil Litigation, Intellectual Property, Juvenile Law, Veterans Law, and Pro Bono. Students have access to 119 clinic seats, 464 simulation course seats, and 13 seminars (North Carolina Central University 2020a).

SULC offers 10 clinical programs, including Family Law, Estates, Wills, and Trusts, Taxation, Housing, Community Development, Youth Justice, Intellectual Property, Criminal Defense, Economic Justice, and Workers’ Compensation. SULC boasts the largest number of clinic seats available for students at 526 seats in the 2023–2024 academic year.

TSU Law offers four clinics in the areas of family law, estates, wills, and trusts, immigration, and criminal defense and offered 70 clinic seats to students in the 2023–2024 academic year (ABA Standard 509 Required Disclosures at Thurgood Marshall School of Law 2024).

UDC Law offers nine clinics in the following practice areas: Community Development Law, Criminal Defense and Racial Justice, General Practice, Immigration and Human Rights, Whistleblower Protection, Housing Advocacy and Litigation, Youth Justice, Legislation, and Low-Income Taxpayers (University of the District of Columbia 2023). For the 2023–2024 academic year, 165 clinic seats were available, and 210 seats are offered in simulation courses.

Table 1 shows the 14 specific clinical law programs offered at each of the six ABA-accredited HBCU schools.

Five key themes emerge from our review of clinical law programs. They are summarized in

Table 2. Key themes of clinical law programs at HBCU law schools in the United States.

Affordable Housing and Displacement	Does the HBCU law school help to reduce the displacement/eviction of marginalized communities? Does the HBCU law school promote affordable housing, property improvements/repairs for marginalized communities?	- Client testimonials - First-time homebuyer workshops - Landlord/tenant court pro bono representation
Poverty and Economic Inequities	Does the HBCU law school provide entrepreneurship support, training, or aid in the prevention of loss of generational wealth (i.e., wills and estates)?	- Tax support (filing, IRS advocacy)
Youth Justice Involvement	Does the HBCU law school advocate for youth under 18 years of age or work on initiatives that aim to reduce youth involvement in the justice system and advocate for alternatives to incarceration?	- Pro bono representation - Advocacy for reform
Immigration Advocacy	Does the HBCU law school help asylum seekers and/or undocumented immigrants navigate the path to naturalization?	- Representation - Referrals - Advocacy - Successful naturalization
Crime and Public Safety	Does the HBCU law school help to promote awareness and equitable safety measures and help to reduce disparities in the justice system?	- Advocacy efforts (i.e., filed amicus brief) - Representation - Referrals to community resources

.

Table 3. Trending clinical law programs at HBCU law schools in the United States.

HBCU Law School	Affordable Housing and Displacement Prevention	Poverty and Economic Inequities	Youth Justice Involvement	Immigration Advocacy	Crime and Public Safety
FAMU Law	Housing Clinic	Tax Clinic Economic Justice Mediation Clinic	Youth Justice Clinic		Criminal Defense Clinic
HUSL	Housing Clinic	Estates, Wills, and Trusts Civil Rights Intellectual Property Economic Justice	Youth Justice Clinic Family Law		Movement Lawyering Civil Rights Criminal Defense Clinic
NCCU Law	Housing Clinic	Tax Clinic Community Development Clinic Intellectual Property	Family Law Youth Justice		Criminal Defense Clinic
SULC	Housing Clinic	Tax Clinic Community Development Clinic Intellectual Property Workers’ Compensation Clinic	Family Law Youth Justice Clinic		Criminal Defense Clinic
TSU Law		Youth Justice Clinic	Family Law	Immigration Clinic	Criminal Defense Clinic
UDC Law	Housing Clinic	Tax Clinic Community Development Clinic Workers’ Compensation Clinic	Family Law Youth Justice Clinic	Immigration Clinic	Civil Rights Criminal Defense Clinic

shows the specific law clinics offered in the five key areas at the six HBCU law schools in our sample. These key areas are evidence of the commitment to advocacy and support for marginalized communities that are consistently found in the stated mission and objectives of the HBCU law schools. For example, clinics on affordable housing and displacement help prevent evictions, promote affordable housing, and provide landlord–tenant court representation and homebuyer workshops. To address poverty and economic inequities, clinics are offered to support the entrepreneurship aspirations of clients, provide tax assistance, and aid in preserving generational wealth through wills and estates services. Youth justice is another well supported area in the clinical law programs, with initiatives to reduce youth incarceration through pro bono representation of youth and advocacy for justice reform. Immigration advocacy programs assist asylum seekers and undocumented immigrants by providing legal representation, referrals, and support for naturalization. Additionally, efforts in crime prevention and public safety focus on promoting equitable safety measures, reducing disparities in the justice system, and engaging in advocacy, representation, and referrals to community resources.

3.2. Community Impact Measures

There is a plethora of literature on community impact measures to assess the contributions of higher education institutions and their various community outreach and education programs (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services 2021; Bloomgarden 2017; Conville and Kinnell 2010; Groark and McCall 2018; Levkoe 2020). Drawing on academic publications and reports, several recurring themes stand out, including engagement, advocacy, community mission, stakeholders, and organizational leadership. Igbokwe et al. (2024) identified factors such as community engagement, grassroots participation, effective partnerships, and adaptative strategies as ways to measure the successful community impact of universities. These researchers used a comparative case study analysis to demonstrate effective approaches to community engagement in both the US and African contexts. Gittell and Wilder (1999) used a case study analysis approach to demonstrate critical success factors that show how educational institutions impact their local communities. These authors noted that community building activities and engagement are central to successful advocacy, job training, and youth programming. More specifically, Gittell and Wilder pointed out that mission, organizational competency, political capital, and funding are key determinants of successful community engagement and impact. Nhlapo and Hlalele (2021) state that community–university partnerships should draw from the expertise and resources of the university (Nhlapo and Hlalele 2021). Finally, Bloomgarden (2017) concludes that engagement is critical and that community evaluations should pose the question “Are things changed for the better or worse in the community?” (Bloomgarden 2017).

The reviewed publications on campus community engagement also highlighted the positive impact of community engagement on students, which is worth noting even though student learning outcomes are not the primary focus of our analysis. Ingman et al. (2022) asserted that service learning engages students as change agents and teaches the roles and responsibilities of good citizenship (Ingman et al. 2022). Additionally, through practical learning, students can improve their sense of cultural competence and establish a greater appreciation of community needs as a result of community learning (Keeler et al. 2022, p. 133). Several researchers speak to the ability of clinical programs to teach professional responsibility, raise awareness of psychosocial economic factors in legal situations, and teach a practical and critical understanding of the law (Evans and Hyams 2008; Falati 2020; Hyams 2006).

Four key themes and their associated measures emerge from the review of the community engagement literature. They are evidence of engagement, representation, client outcomes, and advocacy. A review of these identified community performance indicators (CPIs) in the publicly available documents describing the community mission of the six HBCU law schools in our sample reveals strong alignment. All four measures of advocacy, engagement, client outcomes, and representation are frequently mentioned.

An example of meeting the advocacy community performance indicator rating is that several of the law schools have written an amicus brief or engaged in public support or activism. FAMU, for example, wrote an amicus brief aimed at challenging laws that disproportionately impact socioeconomically disadvantaged groups (Florida A & M University 2024b). Howard University School of Law clinical program students testified at the United Nations to support the inclusion of marginalized communities in county sustainable development plans (Lawrence 2023). An example of meeting the engagement community performance indicator is that the law students in a clinical law program have interacted directly with residents to provide educational or community outreach. An example of meeting the client outcomes measure is that clinical program/students have brought about a desired result for the clients served through their clinical law program, including a completed legal process/filing that achieved a favorable decision on a case. FAMU Law had the most significant evidence of desired client outcomes, as did NCCU Law. In one instance, FAMU Law’s immigration clinic reported hosting a naturalization ceremony for 20 of its clients who recently became US citizens (Florida A & M University 2023). Finally, an example of meeting the representation measure implies that there is evidence of the clinical program or its students providing direct client services without reporting on the outcomes of the engagement. Moreover, the impact measure ‘representation’ is often met through partnerships that expand the capacity of the law schools themselves and provide direct legal services to small business owners, low-income housing residents, and hosting pop-up legal clinics for undocumented residents (Paschall-Brown 2023).

Table 4. Impact indicators of community impact at HBCU law schools.

HBCU Law School	Affordable Housing and Displacement Prevention	Poverty and Economic Inequities	Youth Justice Involvement	Immigration Advocacy	Crime and Public Safety
FAMU Law	Engagement1 Representation2	Engagement3 Advocacy4 Representation5,6	Advocacy7 Engagement8 Representation9	Engagement10 Client Outcomes11 Representation12	Client Outcomes13 Engagement14 Representation15
HUSL	Advocacy16,17,18 Client Outcomes19	Client Outcomes20 Representation21 Advocacy22,23		Advocacy24	Client Outcomes25 Representation26 Advocacy27,28,29,30
NCCU Law	Engagement31	Client Outcomes32 Representation33,34,35	Representation36 Engagement37		Client Outcomes38 Representation39
SULC	Representation40 Client Outcomes41	Engagement42,43 Client Outcomes44 Representation45	Representation46
TSU Law		Representation47		Advocacy48 Representation49
UDC Law	Representation50	Representation51 Engagement52	Advocacy53,54 Engagement 55 Representation56	Advocacy57 Representation/Client Outcomes58,59	Representation60

summarizes the evidence of the four community impact measures in the different clinical law programs offered by the six HBCU law schools. Further details regarding the law schools’ performance with respect to the identified community impact indicators in the different clinical law programs can be found in the endnotes to this article.

4. Discussion

Overall Analysis of the Six HBCUs

An analysis of clinical programs across HBCU law schools reveals distinct trends in their approaches to addressing the need for systemic change identified within their communities. All six institutions demonstrate significant engagement in poverty-related legal assistance, reflecting a shared commitment to serving economically disadvantaged populations. Additionally, affordable housing is a key area of focus, with five out of six schools actively involved in this area.

Representation is a consistent strategy used across multiple clinical programs, showing a strong dedication to providing direct legal services to underserved communities. All six law schools engage in legal representation for issues related to poverty and economic inequities. The two Washington, D.C.-based institutions, UDC Law and Howard University School of Law (HUSL), place a stronger emphasis on advocacy than the other law schools in our sample, which is likely influenced by their proximity to federal legislative bodies and policy-making organizations.

FAMU Law and UDC Law demonstrate the most comprehensive clinical engagement, addressing all five clinical program areas identified. Immigration advocacy is the least represented category, with only FAMU and Texas Southern University (TSU) Law contributing to this field. This pattern may reflect the prioritization of immigration-related challenges in Houston and Orlando, where these schools are located.

Similarly, the public safety impact area findings are somewhat surprising. Only four of the six law schools in our sample, FAMU Law, HUSL, NCCU Law, and UDC Law, reported activity in this area, while SULC and TSU Law did not. This may suggest opportunities for expansion in advocacy, representation, and community engagement as it relates to crime and public safety since most US cities and metro areas consider crime prevention and public safety a top priority.

Overall, the data demonstrates the essential role HBCU law school clinics play in advancing social justice, particularly in addressing poverty and economic disparities. While further research incorporating annual reports and stakeholder interviews could provide a more comprehensive analysis, the publicly available data analyzed in this paper affirms that HBCU law schools practice their community-centered missions and commitment to addressing systemic inequities rather than just giving them lip-service.

Further research will be needed to also confirm the positive educational impact of the clinical law programs on HBCU law students. The programs are typically offered to second- and third-year students to ensure that participants have completed foundational coursework before engaging in direct legal practice. Some jurisdictions require student practitioners to obtain certification through the local bar to provide legal services under attorney supervision. For example, the David A. Clarke School of Law at UDC mandates that full-time students complete at least fourteen clinic credits through two seven-credit clinics, while part-time students must earn at least ten clinic credits through a single evening clinic (University of the District of Columbia 2023). Faculty composition and tenure policies differ across institutions, influencing the capacity and scope of clinical offerings.

5. Conclusions

The clinical law programs at HBCU law schools serve as a cornerstone of the communities where the schools are located, reflecting a deep commitment of HBCUs to social impact and regional engagement. These programs fulfill their mission by providing legal representation to underrepresented individuals and organizations, thereby advancing access to justice and community empowerment. Initially established by state governments to comply with federal mandates, HBCU law schools are recognized today for transforming inadequate resources into centers of legal excellence through determination, brilliance, and an unwavering commitment to civic duty. Despite systemic challenges, these law schools have built institutional models that reflect the highest ideals of higher education in the US to prepare students for successful careers and meaningful contributions to civil society.

This study reaffirms that HBCU law schools fulfill not only their mission to provide legal education to underrepresented students, but also to provide meaningful legal services for the residents and communities where they are located. HBCUs not only educate students who have been historically and persistently underrepresented at the bar, but they leverage their legal expertise to address systemic inequities in the communities they serve. This is evidenced by the fact that all of the law schools in our sample meet all four of the key community performance indicators identified in our review of the literature on the impact of higher education institutions. All of the law schools meet the criteria of advocacy, engagement, client outcomes, and representation. Additional factors also play a role in shaping specific law clinics offered at some but not all of the law schools, such as the geographic location of the law schools, their historical mission, and their proximity to legislative bodies.

Placing these findings within a broader context indicates the important role legal education plays in addressing pressing societal issues and the role clinical law programs can play in advancing systemic change. The variability in program structures, faculty involvement, and student engagement across the different HBCU institutions underscores the diversity of clinical legal education, offering a foundation for further comparative analysis. Future research incorporating stakeholder interviews can further identify the best practices for structuring clinical programs to maximize their impact.

Overall, our findings also affirm the significance of experiential learning in legal education. Law clinics bridge classroom instruction with real-world practice, equipping students with the skills necessary to navigate the complexities of legal advocacy. Yet while this study highlights the broad reach of HBCU law school clinics, it also acknowledges gaps in data that limit the analysis of whether and how clinical law programs address the needs of specific underrepresented groups, such as the LGBTQ+ community, for example, which faces distinct legal barriers that may not be fully captured in the publicly available documents reporting on the mission and community impact work of HBCU law schools.

Despite the challenges and resource constraints they face, HBCU law schools continue to play a vital role in expanding access to justice through their clinical programs. Their effect is both immediate and enduring, training the next generation of legal professionals while directly addressing injustices within their communities and regions. These institutions remain crucial agents of change and indispensable cornerstones of justice in their communities and regions.