Integrating Human Values Theory and Self-Determination Theory: Parental Influences on Preschoolers’ Sustained Sport Participation

Abstract

Purposes: This study aims to construct a research framework integrating the theory of human values and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to examine whether parents’ sport values influence their support for children’s continued participation in balance bike activities in terms of the mediation of participation motivation. Methods: Data were collected from 439 parents whose children participated in balance bike activities using a snowball sampling method. Descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling (SEM) were employed to analyze the relationships among parents’ sport values, participation motivation, and continued participation intention. Results: The findings revealed that parents’ sport values significantly predicted participation motivation, which, in turn, remarkably influenced continued participation intention. Participation motivation fully mediated the relationship between sport values and continued participation intention, supporting SDT’s assumption of motivational internalization and highlighting the crucial role of intrinsic motivation.

1. Introduction

Global fertility rates have declined significantly from an average of 4.5 children per woman in the 1970s to fewer than 2.5 in recent years [1]. Taiwan exemplifies this trend, with fertility rates dropping sharply from 7.05 in the 1950s to below 1.2 in the early 2000s [2], making it one of the lowest in the world. In response, the Taiwanese government has introduced measures such as parental leave, childcare subsidies, and early childhood education support [3]. Amid this low fertility context, parents increasingly adopt a “fewer children, better education” mindset, directing resources toward preschool enrichment, sports, and language programs to enhance their child’s development. Hsu et al. [4] noted that kindergartens have strengthened curricula and facilities to attract limited enrollments, reflecting parental demand for quality extracurricular education. Similarly, education policy studies have reported rising household expenditures on non-formal programs, including English, music, and physical activity [5]. These patterns suggest that under declining birth rates and heightened educational expectations, Taiwanese parents are responding with intensive investment in their child’s developmental opportunities.

Since 2020, Taiwan’s Health Promotion Administration has collaborated with the Ministry of Education and local governments to implement the “Preschool Health Promotion Policy.” Of its four core areas, “Physical Fitness” is particularly emphasized, aiming to increase preschool children’s physical activity levels and mitigate the health risks associated with excessive reliance on digital parenting (consumer electronics). The policy is structured according to “Preschool Health Policies,” “Children’s Health Skills and Behaviors,” and “Parent Communication and Community Resources,” addressing four key health topics: vision care, accident prevention, nutrition, and physical fitness. This study particularly focuses on the domain of physical fitness. In contemporary families, many parents increasingly rely on consumer electronic devices as “digital babysitters” to secure personal downtime. However, such practices are contributing to a sedentary lifestyle among young children, characterized by prolonged sitting and insufficient physical activity. This trend has raised concerns regarding its potential adverse effects on children’s visual development, physical health, and overall cognitive growth. Research has shown that excessive screen exposure among preschoolers is associated not only with reduced daily physical activity and increased sedentary behavior, but also with heightened risks of sleep disturbances, diminished attention spans, and developmental delays [6]. Active parental involvement in children’s after-school or weekend physical activities is expected to significantly enhance their physical and mental development including their health literacy. Previous research has indicated that one of the critical factors influencing children’s engagement in physical activities is the parents’ attitudes and values [7].

With the rise of health consciousness and the promotion of parent–child co-learning concepts, children’s participation in physical activities has become an essential part of modern family education. In recent years, balance bike activities have gained increasing popularity among families with preschool children in Taiwan. This trend is evidenced by the growing number of children’s balance bike competitions held across the country, active discussions in parent–child social groups, and the emergence of specialized riding events. Such developments reflect Taiwanese parents’ rising emphasis on incorporating structured physical activities into their children’s daily routines, supported by both educational and commercial sectors. From a developmental perspective, studies have shown that balance bikes significantly enhance children’s gross motor control, particularly in balance, coordination, and postural stability. Furthermore, children using balance bikes tend to achieve independent riding skills earlier than those trained with traditional training wheels [8,9]. Participation in such activities not only involves the children’s physical engagement but also is deeply embedded in family decision-making and parental value systems. Parents’ sport values play a critical role in shaping children’s motivation, significantly influencing their engagement, participation levels, and sustained intention to participate in physical activities during the childhood and adolescence period [10,11]. As contemporary parents provide various sport values and resources to their children, carving out different patterns of sport behaviors, this study seeks to explore how parents’ sport values affect their children’s continued participation motivation.

Parental values play a crucial role in early childhood development, not only influencing the initial formation of children’s values but also significantly shaping their early learning performance and socio-emotional growth. Research indicates that positive parenting practices enhance value congruence between parents and children, thereby promoting healthy development in emotional regulation and behavioral outcomes [12]. Specifically, parental value orientation has been found to be negatively associated with children’s behavioral problems—children of highly value-oriented parents tend to exhibit fewer emotional difficulties and externalizing behaviors [13]. Moreover, Killoren et al. [14] found that the clarity and consistency of parental values, across various cultural contexts, are positively linked to children’s social adaptability and empathic behaviors. These studies underscore the core socializing function of parental values during early childhood and highlight the importance of further exploring their influence on young children’s social behaviors and emotional development.

This study is grounded in Rokeach’s theory of human values, which conceptualizes values as critical constructs influencing human behavior and motivational judgments [15]. Rokeach distinguished between terminal values and instrumental values, further categorizing them into four types: personal-oriented terminal values (e.g., health and achievement), social-oriented terminal values (e.g., family security and social recognition), competence instrumental values (e.g., courage and self-discipline), and moral instrumental values (e.g., honesty and responsibility). When parents emphasize specific value orientations in relation to their children’s participation in sports, this may affect their attitudes toward activities and parenting behaviors, subsequently shaping their children’s sport motivation and continued participation behaviors [7,16].

When engaging in leisure sports activities, individuals develop various motivations based on their specific needs. For parents, participation in interactive leisure activities with young children involves considerations beyond their personal needs, for it also encompasses the developmental needs of their children. Parental involvement in educational activities across different educational stages has been shown to yield positive outcomes, enhancing parents’ academic support abilities, positive parenting attitudes, and high-quality social interactions, which in turn positively impact children’s academic achievements [17]. It has been further suggested that when mothers possess clear intrinsic motivation, it not only increases their willingness and degree of involvement in their children’s education but also fosters improvements in children’s learning performance and overall development [18]. Based on these insights, this study posits that varying degrees of parental motivation may influence the continued participation intention of children. Thus, this research seeks to explore parents’ participation motivation, which acts as a crucial factor affecting sustained engagement in children’s sports activities.

To further elucidate the motivational mechanisms by which parents prompt their children’s participation in balance bike activities, this study uses Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as the core theoretical framework. SDT posits that motivation exists along a continuum from external control to autonomous self-regulation, encompassing three major types: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation [19,20]. Within this framework, the parent–child relationship-oriented motivation refers to an intrinsic motivation source driven by emotional bonding, attachment security, and family values [21]. In contrast, the social relationship-oriented motivation is considered an extrinsic motivation source influenced by peer comparisons, social expectations, or competitive pressures [16,22]. Based on this conceptualization, this study constructs a classification framework of motivational sources to investigate how the participation motivation influences children’s continued participation intention in balance bike activities.

Finally, children’s continued participation intention in balance bike activities serves as the behavioral outcome variable of interest in this study, referring to parents’ inclination to consistently grant support, invest resources, and accompany their children in long-term engagement with such sports activities. Previous research has indicated that individuals driven by strong value identification and intrinsic motivation tend to exhibit a stronger intention for sustained participation [22]. However, in contexts where young children are the primary participants with parents being the decision-makers, the underlying psychological mechanisms remain to be further clarified.

In summary, this study constructs an integrated research framework combining Rokeach’s value theory, the motivational source classification from Self-Determination Theory (SDT), and children’s continued participation intention. The research focuses on examining how parents, through their sport values and varying motivational sources, influence children’s sustained engagement in balance bike activities. It is anticipated that this study will contribute theoretically by extending the applications of SDT and value theory to the domain of parent–child sports participation and practically provide concrete strategies to enhance family support for children’s continued involvement in physical activities.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Relationship Between Values and Behavior

2.1.1. Sport Values: Definition and Conceptualization

According to Rokeach’s theory of human values, the ultimate and instrumental values held by individuals influence their behavioral orientations and goal-setting processes [15]. Within the family context, parents’ perceptions of the terminal and instrumental values associated with sports may translate into different parenting behaviors and participation strategies, thereby shaping young children’s behavioral motivations and participation intentions. Research has demonstrated that when parents strongly identify with sport values, their levels of supervision, encouragement, and willingness to participate in their children’s activities will significantly increase, particularly through strategic parenting behaviors [16].

Based on Rokeach’s framework [15], values are categorized into terminal values—representing the ultimate goals an individual aspires to achieve—and instrumental values, which refer to the behavioral modes or means adopted to attain these goals. This study applies this theoretical model to conceptualize parents’ sport values, classifying them into four major categories:

• Personal-oriented terminal values: Parents believe that sports help children gain personal growth and health, including enhancing physical fitness and boosting self-confidence.
• Social-oriented terminal values: Parents perceive sports as a means to foster social recognition, including building friendships, attaining competitive honors, and developing teamwork abilities.
• Competence instrumental values: Parents encourage children to cultivate effort, discipline, and a competitive spirit through sports to achieve higher athletic performance or personal accomplishments.
• Moral instrumental values: Parents view sports as an important vehicle for nurturing honesty, fair play, and respect for others.

2.1.2. Studies on the Relationship Between Values and Behavior

Research by Lee, Whitehead, and Ntoumanis [23] demonstrated that different orientations of sport values influence children’s modes of participation in sports. For example, parents who emphasize moral values are more likely to encourage their children to adhere to principles of fair competition, whereas those who prioritize competence values tend to focus more on children’s athletic performance and outcomes. Moreover, Lee, Whitehead, and Ntoumanis [23] found that various value orientations guide parental attitudes and the types of sport activities in which their children engage. In addition, Gano-Overway [24] suggested that parents who stress moral and caring orientations are more likely to foster cooperative behaviors and long-term participation tendencies in their children’s sport involvement.

In the domain of sport participation, values are regarded as critical psychological factors influencing the sustainability of behavior. Haycock and Smith [25] noted that individuals who grow up in a family environment that emphasizes the importance of sports are more likely to maintain engagement in recreational physical activity into adulthood. This finding implies that the internalization of family sport values during childhood exerts a long-term influence on sustained participation. In addition, Jaf et al. [26] found that adolescents who identified with the sport values conveyed by their parents were significantly less likely to drop out of organized sport activities, suggesting that value internalization enhances behavioral consistency. Similarly, Danioni et al. [27] emphasized that when parents demonstrate coherent sport values and active participation attitudes, they help foster positive sport values in their children, which in turn promotes sustained engagement in sport-related behaviors. Collectively, these empirical findings underscore the crucial role of familial value transmission in supporting individuals’ long-term sport participation. Based on these insights, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1). 

Parents’ sport values have a significant positive effect on continued participation intention.

In addition, when exploring the influence of family factors on children’s participation motivation, parents’ sport values are also regarded as a crucial source for motivating behavioral engagement. Through a longitudinal study, Chang and Mahoney [10] found that parents’ emphasis on sports and their actual support behaviors significantly predicted their children’s sport participation motivation and behavioral performance during middle childhood and adolescence. Parents with strong identification with sport values are more likely to reinforce their children’s interest and persistence in physical activities through specific behaviors such as encouragement, companionship, and communication, thereby promoting their self-identification and intention to participate. Similarly, Gao et al. [28], in a systematic review, concluded that when parents exhibit positive sport goals and value orientations, they significantly enhance their children’s self-determined motivation. The study further pointed out that such value transmission is often achieved through parental behavior patterns and communication strategies, such as offering choices and providing positive reinforcement, which strengthen children’s motivation quality and participation intention.

Taken together, the literature suggests that sport values transmitted within the family play a vital role in shaping children’s motivational development and behavioral continuity in sport participation. Specifically, parents’ identification with and enactment of sport values not only directly influence their children’s behavioral expressions, but also indirectly foster long-term participation tendencies by enhancing motivation quality. Based on these insights, this study proposes the following hypothesis to further examine the impact of parental sport values on preschoolers’ participation process:

Hypothesis 2 (H2). 

Parents’ sport values have a significant positive effect on participation motivation.

2.2. The Relationship Between Personal Values and Self-Determination Theory

2.2.1. Self-Determination Theory: Definition and Conceptualization

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), proposed by Deci and Ryan, posits that human behavioral motivation exists along a continuum ranging from amotivation to extrinsic motivation and ultimately to intrinsic motivation [19,20]. SDT emphasizes that the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—facilitates the development of higher-quality forms of motivation. Relatedness refers to individuals’ desire to feel connected, to feel a sense of belonging, and to be cared for by others amid social interactions [20]. Within the family context, relatedness is demonstrated through emotional bonding and shared experiences between parents and children; when parents satisfy children’s need for relatedness, it enhances the cultivation of their intrinsic motivation and self-initiative [21]. Ntoumanis et al. [29] further noted that supportive communication within the domains of sports and family significantly improves individuals’ identification with activities and enhances the quality of their motivation.

The process of internalizing motivation involves the gradual transformation of externally regulated behaviors into self-directed actions, with the fulfillment of psychological needs playing a crucial role in this transition. Joussemet et al. [30] found that when parenting practices combine emotional support with the encouragement of autonomy, children are more likely to internalize external demands as intrinsic motivation rather than acting merely under compliance or pressure. Similarly, Grolnick and Pomerantz [31] emphasized that overly controlling parenting styles undermine children’s self-determination, while autonomy-supportive parenting fosters voluntary participation and deeper motivation internalization.

However, previous studies have predominantly focused on the typology of motivation itself, with less attention given to the heterogeneity of psychological sources of motivation within the family contexts. Therefore, based on the core concept of relatedness in SDT, this study further differentiates parents’ motivation to support children’s sports participation into two categories: (1) parent–child relationship-oriented motivation, wherein parents encourage children’s participation based on emotional bonding and shared values, serving as an intrinsic source of motivation [21]; and (2) social relationship-oriented motivation, wherein parents are influenced by peer comparisons, community expectations, or societal evaluations, reflecting a more extrinsic motivational source [16,22].

Accordingly, this study constructs a new classification model of motivational sources, highlighting the heterogeneous impact of different motivational origins on motivation quality across family and social contexts, thereby extending and enriching the application of SDT within the field of parent–child sports participation.

2.2.2. The Relationship Between Parental Sport Values and Self-Determination Theory

Rokeach’s theory of human values and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) together provide complementary theoretical perspectives for this study. Rokeach’s framework posits that individuals’ terminal and instrumental values influence their behavioral choices and goal setting [15]. Within the family context, this implies that parents’ identification with sport values is reflected in their parenting strategies and engagement behaviors [26,27], thereby shaping their children’s motivation for sport participation.

On the other hand, SDT emphasizes that the quality of human motivation depends on the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness [19,20]. According to SDT, when parents practice their sport values through supportive parenting that meets their children’s psychological needs, they are more likely to foster intrinsic motivation in their children [30,31], thereby enhancing children’s engagement and stability in sport participation.

This study also proposes a nuanced classification of motivational sources by differentiating between two parental motivations for supporting children’s sport involvement: (1) parent–child relationship-oriented motivation, which is based on emotional bonding and shared values and reflects an intrinsic source of motivation; and (2) social relationship-oriented motivation, which is driven by societal expectations and peer comparisons, representing an extrinsic motivational source. Through this classification model, the study highlights how different motivational origins, rooted in familial and social contexts, affect participation motivation, thus extending the application of SDT in the domain of parent–child sport involvement.

Taken together, the perspectives of Rokeach and SDT—though, respectively, focused on values and psychological motivation—converge on a common core proposition: that value enactment and emotional support within the family context can effectively facilitate young children’s intrinsic motivation and enhance their sustained engagement in sport activities.

2.3. Definition and Conceptualization of Continued Participation Intention

According to McIntyre [32], continued participation intention refers to a psychological tendency wherein individuals, through experiencing pleasure, a sense of meaning, and life enrichment during activity participation, gradually perceive the activity as a central part of their leisure life maintaining ongoing engagement. This process typically originates from initial motivational drives, which foster behavioral intentions that progressively translate into stable and enduring participation behaviors.

Based on this theoretical foundation, the present study operationalizes continued participation intention as parents’ psychological tendency to continually invest time and resources to support their children’s long-term involvement in balance bike activities, driven by positive experiences and value identification during the participation process. In other words, when parents themselves experience joy and a sense of accomplishment through the activity, they are more likely to sustain their support for their children’s sports participation.

Several studies have also confirmed that various forms of participation motivation—whether intrinsic, extrinsic, or family support-related—make significant positive influences on continued participation intention [33,34,35]. These findings further reinforce the hypotheses within this study’s framework regarding the role of motivation in shaping continued participation intentions.

Therefore, the current study proposes the following hypothesis to examine this motivational pathway within the context of preschool balance bike participation:

Hypothesis 3 (H3). 

Participation motivation has a significant positive effect on continued participation intention.

According to the previous literature review, we proposed the conceptual framework as shown in Figure 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Objects and Data Collection

The participants of this study were parents of preschool children engaged in balance bike activities. Data were collected through an online questionnaire using Google Forms. Prior to participation, all respondents were informed that the survey was for academic research purposes only, participation was voluntary, and no personal identifying information would be collected to ensure ethical standards and participant rights. The questionnaire link was initially distributed through various balance bike communities and related online groups, followed by a snowball sampling method that encouraged participants to share the survey with other parents. To mitigate potential sampling bias from this approach, the research team also recruited participants through diverse channels, including Facebook sports groups, LINE parent communities, and in-person balance bike practice sites. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed, with 439 valid responses collected, resulting in an effective response rate of 87.8%.

3.2. Analysis Methods and Data Analysis for Validity and Reliability

A five-point Likert scale was employed in this study.

The measurement scale for parents’ sport values was developed based on Rokeach’s value framework [15], which categorizes values into terminal and instrumental types. Accordingly, the scale was divided into four dimensions: personal-oriented terminal values, social-oriented terminal values, competence instrumental values, and moral instrumental values. Prior to the formal survey, a pilot test was conducted to validate the reliability and validity of the scale. In terms of validity, the exploratory factor analysis revealed a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of 0.865 and a significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.001). Factor loadings ranged from 0.804 to 0.947. According to Kaiser [36], a KMO value greater than 0.70 indicates suitability for factor analysis, thus confirming the scale’s strong construct validity. Regarding reliability, Cronbach’s α coefficient was calculated, yielding an overall value of 0.975, indicating an excellent level of internal consistency for empirical application.

The participation motivation scale was divided into two dimensions: parent–child relationship needs and social relationship needs. The parent–child relationship needs items were adapted and revised from the Child–Parent Relationship Scale [37] and the Parent–Child Relationship Inventory [38]. The social relationship needs items were based on the Social Provisions Scale [39] and the Social Support Questionnaire [40], with appropriate cultural adjustments to suit the study context. A pilot test was conducted prior to the main survey to assess the reliability and validity of the scale. The exploratory factor analysis revealed a KMO value of 0.847 and a significant Bartlett’s test (p < 0.001), with factor loadings ranging from 0.824 to 0.888, demonstrating strong structural validity. For reliability, Cronbach’s α was 0.877, indicating good internal consistency.

The continued participation intention scale was adapted from the Reparticipation Intention Scale developed by Kim et al. [41], with semantic modifications tailored to the context of this study to measure parents’ intentions of supporting their children’s sustained participation in balance bike activities. A pilot study was conducted before the formal survey to verify the scale’s reliability and validity. The exploratory factor analysis yielded a KMO value of 0.780 and a significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.001), with factor loadings between 0.772 and 0.876, indicating good construct validity. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.817, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency.

3.3. Data Analysis

In this study, SPSS 21 and SmartPLS 4.0 were utilized for various statistical analyses. The analytical methods included descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling (SEM). SmartPLS 4.0 is particularly suitable for handling complex higher-order models, making it a preferred tool among researchers for analyzing intricate structural models [42].

4. Results

4.1. Demographic Distribution of the Sample

In this study, a total of 168 participants were male (38.4%) and 271 were female (61.6%). Regarding age distribution, the majority of participants were aged 41 and above (257 individuals, 58.4%). In terms of the educational background, most participants had attained a college-level education (270 individuals, 61.4%). For physical activity patterns over the past three months, the most common weekly exercise duration was within 30 min (98 individuals, 22.3%). Regarding the gender of the participants’ children, the majority were boys (261 individuals, 59.3%).

4.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Before conducting the structural path analysis, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the reliability and validity of each construct. The evaluation included assessments of the measurement model and discriminant validity, with detailed results presented in

Table 1. Estimated parameters of the measurement model.

Dimension	Item	Original Sample	S.E.	T Statistics	CR	AVE
Personal- Oriented Terminal Values	PV1	0.750	0.033	22.779	0.876	0.587
	PV2	0.782	0.031	25.242
	PV3	0.794	0.026	30.402
	PV4	0.770	0.029	26.878
	PV5	0.733	0.041	17.960
Social- Oriented Terminal Values	SV1	0.843	0.017	49.186	0.910	0.668
	SV2	0.826	0.022	38.235
	SV3	0.807	0.021	37.565
	SV4	0.844	0.017	49.432
	SV5	0.730	0.030	25.368
Competence Instrumental Values	CV1	0.811	0.023	35.671	0.893	0.624
	CV2	0.781	0.029	25.928
	CV3	0.771	0.033	23.532
	CV4	0.804	0.024	32.925
	CV5	0.782	0.027	29.208
Moral Instrumental Values	MV1	0.869	0.013	66.545	0.892	0.674
	MV2	0.833	0.018	46.853
	MV3	0.721	0.039	18.494
	MV4	0.852	0.017	49.255
Parent– Child Relationship Needs	PN1	0.838	0.018	46.234	0.912	0.674
	PN2	0.820	0.025	33.269
	PN3	0.832	0.023	36.340
	PN4	0.815	0.020	41.313
	PN5	0.801	0.026	31.275
Social Relationship Needs	SN1	0.887	0.010	85.156	0.883	0.716
	SN2	0.898	0.012	66.843
	SN3	0.745	0.037	20.286
Continued Participation Intention	CI1	0.828	0.020	42.348	0.903	0.700
	CI2	0.734	0.031	23.964
	CI3	0.891	0.015	61.331
	CI4	0.883	0.013	68.560

Notes: PV: personal-oriented terminal values; SV: social-oriented terminal values; CV: competence instrumental values; MV: moral instrumental values; PN: parent–child relationship needs; SN: social relationship needs; and CI: continued participation intention; S.E.: standard error; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted.

. The factor loadings for all items ranged from 0.755 to 0.946, indicating good convergent validity. The composite reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.922 to 0.965, demonstrating strong internal consistency for each construct [43].

The average variance extracted (AVE), which assesses both convergent and discriminant validity, ranged from 0.716 to 0.873, all exceeding the threshold of 0.5, thus confirming adequate convergent validity [43,44]. Furthermore, the square roots of the AVE values for each construct were greater than their corresponding inter-construct correlations, indicating satisfactory discriminant validity [43].

Regarding discriminant validity, the evaluation followed the scholars’ recommendations as shown in

Table 2. Discriminant validity: Fornell–Larcker criterion.

	1.V	2.PM	3.CI
1.V	0.718
2.PM	0.698	0.728
3.CI	0.350	0.494	0.836

Notes: V: Parents’ sport values; PM: participation motivation; and CI: continued participation intention. Bold values represent the square root of AVE.

. According to the Fornell–Larcker criterion, the square root of the AVE for each construct should be greater than its correlations with other constructs in the model with a purpose of establishing discriminant validity. The analysis results of this study conformed to the recommended standards, as demonstrated in Table 2.

4.3. Overall Model Fit

According to Memon and Rahman [45], the primary purpose of model fit evaluation is to assess whether the proposed research framework can reasonably explain the observed data. In SmartPLS, although a direct goodness of fit (GoF) index is not generated, researchers can calculate the GoF value using the formula proposed by Akter et al. [46]. The interpretation criteria for GoF values are as follows: GoF_small = 0.10, GoF_medium = 0.25, and GoF_large = 0.36 [46]. A higher GoF value indicates that the overall model exhibits good fit, with substantial meaning and representativeness.

In this study, the calculated GoF value was 0.466, as shown in

Table 3. Overall model fit indices.

Dimension	AVE	Composite Reliability	R2	Cronbach’s Alpha	GOF
Parents’ Sport Values	0.516	0.953	-	0.947	0.466
Participation Motivation	0.531	0.899	0.487	0.869
Continued Participation Intention	0.700	0.903	0.241	0.855

Notes: AVE: average variance extracted; GOF: goodness of fit.

, reaching the high-fit standard. This result demonstrates that the proposed theoretical model effectively explains and predicts the variables of parents’ sport values, participation motivation, and continued participation intention, indicating strong overall explanatory power and model fit.

4.4. Path Coefficient Significance Testing

In the path analysis, parents’ sport values had a significant positive effect on participation motivation (β = 0.698), indicating that parents with higher sport values demonstrated a stronger participation motivation. Participation motivation also exhibited a significant positive effect on continued participation intention (β = 0.487), suggesting that stronger motivation increased the likelihood of parents supporting their children’s continued participation in balance bike activities. However, the direct effect of parents’ sport values on continued participation intention was not significant (β = 0.009), indicating no direct association between these two constructs, as proved in Figure 2.

Regarding the second-order constructs, the results revealed that within parents’ sport values, the social-oriented terminal values dimension (loading = 0.913) was the primary contributor. This finding suggests that parents’ emphasis on social recognition and interpersonal interaction through sports activities played a critical role in shaping their overall sport values. In the participation motivation construct, the parent–child relationship needs dimension (loading = 0.937) emerged as the dominant source, indicating that parents’ motivation was primarily driven by the desire for emotional bonding and parent–child interaction, aligning with the characteristics of intrinsic motivation in Self-Determination Theory, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Overall, the results demonstrated that participation motivation fully mediated the relationship between parents’ sport values and continued participation intention. This finding supports the motivational internalization mechanism proposed by Self-Determination Theory, emphasizing that values must be translated through the quality of motivation to influence behavioral intentions.

The path coefficients for the three hypothesized relationships (H1–H3) were 0.009, 0.698, and 0.487, respectively. Among them, the path coefficients for H2 and H3 were significant, while the direct effect for H1 was not significant, as shown in

Table 4. Significance testing of path coefficients.

Hypothesis	Effects	t	p	Remark
H1	Sport Value → Continued Participation Intention	0.153	0.879	Non-significant
H2	Sport Value → Participation Motivation	19.478	0.000	Significant
H3	Participation Motivation → Continued Participation Intention	8.132	0.000	Significant

.

5. Discussion

5.1. Results of Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis 1 (H1). Parents’ sport values have a significant positive effect on continued participation intention.

The standardized path coefficient from parents’ sport values to continued participation intention was 0.009 (p = 0.879), indicating a non-significant relationship. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was not supported. This result suggests that parents’ sport values alone may be insufficient to directly enhance individuals’ willingness to continue participating in sports activities, and the result proves to be consistent with prior findings. Shim et al. [47] found that in golf participants, more concrete internal incentives such as achievement orientation and enjoyment had a significant influence on continued participation, rather than abstract sport values. Furthermore, Learmonth et al. [48] reported that among individuals with multiple sclerosis, the primary drivers of exercise behavior were perceived autonomy and positive attitudes toward sport values, which significantly enhanced participation intention and behavioral control. These findings imply that while sport values may form the foundational belief system for participation, their direct effect on continued participation intention might be mediated through motivational factors, emotional engagement, or perceived benefits of exercise.

Hypothesis 2 (H2). Parents’ sport values have a significant positive effect on participation motivation.

The standardized path coefficient from parents’ sport values to participation motivation was 0.698 (p = 0.000), showcasing a significant positive relationship. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. This result suggests that individuals who highly value sports are more likely to develop a stronger participation motivation, primarily driven by the internalization of the meaning of sports. This finding aligns with recent studies emphasizing the role of value internalization in shaping sport motivation. Sejdija and Maggio [49] found that among overweight adolescents, those with self-determined and value-driven motivations demonstrated higher levels of participation and improved quality of life, compared to those motivated by external pressures. In addition, Liu and Liu [50] developed a group exercise motivation scale, finding that personal attitudes and perceived behavioral control (both closely linked to internal values) significantly predicted participation motivation, especially within collectivist cultural contexts. These results support the Self-Determination Theory’s assertion that value congruence plays a key role in motivating sustained behavior.

Hypothesis 3 (H3). Participation motivation has a significant positive effect on continued participation intention.

The standardized path coefficient from participation motivation to continued participation intention was 0.487 (p = 0.000), indicating a significant positive effect. Thus, Hypothesis 3 was supported. This suggests that individuals with stronger participation motivation are more likely to maintain their sports behaviors and participation intentions, highlighting the crucial role of motivation in sustaining behaviors. This finding is consistent with previous studies. Koronios and Kriemadis [33] indicated a significant positive relationship between participation motivation and future participation intention among sports and exercise event participants, emphasizing the importance of understanding motivation when we design strategies for continued engagement. Choi [35] also found that among university futsal club participants, participation motivation strengthened continued participation intention through sports commitment, underscoring motivation as a fundamental driving force for behavioral persistence. Similarly, Kim [34] confirmed that intrinsic motivation and sport confidence were significant predictors of participation continuity among participants in nationwide sports programs, stressing that participation motivation is a core factor in promoting stable exercise behavior. Collectively, these studies support the significant positive effect of participation motivation on continued participation intention identified in the present study.

5.2. Theoretical and Practical Implications

This study conducted an empirical analysis of the relationships among parents’ sport values, participation motivation, and continued participation intention, yielding important theoretical and practical implications.

Theoretically, the findings validate the logical link between value internalization and motivation activation as proposed by the Self-Determination Theory [19,20], further clarifying that the influence of sport values on behavioral intention must be mediated through participation motivation. Moreover, this study addresses a research gap by highlighting the critical role of value identification in the development of intrinsic motivation, which was often overlooked in the previous studies.

Practically, the results suggest that merely emphasizing the inherent value of sports is insufficient to enhance individuals’ participation intentions. Sport organizations and policy makers should also focus on how to stimulate individuals’ intrinsic motivation through curriculum design, community interaction, and the cultivation of a sense of achievement, thereby promoting sustained engagement in sports activities.

5.3. Research Limitations

Although this study makes theoretical contributions and provides empirical insights by validating the proposed model, several limitations should be noted.

First, the study employed a cross-sectional design, which restricts the ability to infer causal relationships among the variables. Future research could adopt a longitudinal design to observe the dynamic processes of motivation changes and behavioral continuation over time.

Second, the sample was primarily drawn from specific regions and demographic groups, which may limit the generalizability and broader application of the findings.

Third, although this study explored the relationships between sport values and motivation, potential mediators (such as sport commitment and enjoyment) and moderators (such as gender and prior sport experience) were not included. This may limit the comprehensive understanding of the underlying behavioral mechanisms.

Fourth, due to the use of a snowball sampling method in this study, the collected sample may exhibit a certain degree of homogeneity, potentially leading to biases in the data. Therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting and applying the findings, as their representativeness and practical applicability may be limited.

5.4. Suggestions for Future Research

Future research could further expand upon the findings of this study from multiple perspectives.

First, it is recommended to conduct longitudinal studies to track temporal changes in parents’ sport values, participation motivation, and continued participation intention, thereby further validating their causal relationships.

Second, future studies could incorporate potential mediating variables, such as sport commitment, sport enjoyment, and self-efficacy, or include children’s perceived feedback as moderating variables in the research model—such as preschoolers’ satisfaction, well-being, or socio-emotional competence—to construct a more comprehensive theoretical framework and deepen the understanding of the psychological processes underlying sustained behavioral engagement.

Additionally, it is suggested to extend the research population to include individuals from different balance bike competition levels, as well as children and parents from diverse age groups, cultural backgrounds, and types of sports, in order to examine the applicability and generalizability of the model across varied contexts, thereby enhancing the external validity and practical significance of the findings.

6. Conclusions

This study adopts Rokeach’s theory of human values and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to explore the effects of parents’ sport values on participation motivation and continued participation intention.

The results revealed that sport values did not make a direct significant influence on continued participation intention but rather operated indirectly through participation motivation, confirming the critical mediating role of motivation between values and behavioral intention. This finding addresses previous research gaps regarding the underlying mechanisms of value influence and highlights the key relationship between value internalization, motivational transformation, and sport participation behavior. Moreover, the study provided empirical support emphasizing the direct and crucial impact of participation motivation on sustained intention to engage in sports, thereby deepening the understanding of behavioral formation processes in the sport domain.

Theoretically, this study extends the application of Rokeach’s value theory within sport psychology and constructs an integrated model combining value theory with SDT, illustrating how sport values activate behavioral intentions through motivation. Practically speaking, the findings suggest that simply emphasizing the external value of sports is insufficient to promote long-term participation. Instead, practitioners and policymakers should focus on designing participation environments and strategies that stimulate intrinsic motivation, such as fostering a sense of achievement, providing social support, and offering opportunities for autonomy, thereby enhancing individuals’ sustained engagement. Future interventions could further be built on this framework to develop more motivation-oriented sport promotion programs, aiming to strengthen long-term public commitment to physical activity and healthy behavior formation.