Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors
1
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, ON N1G2W1, Canada
2
Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization of Iran, Animal Science Research Institute of Iran, Honey Bee Research Department, Shahid-Beheshty Ave., 1st Dehghan-villa, Karaj 3146618361, Iran
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Insects 2020, 11(9), 572; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11090572
Received: 31 July 2020
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Revised: 18 August 2020
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Accepted: 24 August 2020
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Published: 26 August 2020
Simple Summary
Nosema disease of honey bees is caused by the fungus Nosema ceranae, which multiplies and damages cells lining the digestive tract, impairing food digestion and debilitating the bees. Current control involves using antibiotics, which is undesirable because of possible antibiotic resistance of the fungus and contamination of honey. In this study, the natural compounds flagellin, zymosan, chitosan and peptidoglycan were investigated as alternatives for controlling Nosema ceranae infections and for their effect on bee survivorship and behaviors. Chitosan and peptidoglycan reduced infection and increased survivorship of infected bees. However, neither compound altered the bees’ hygienic behavior, which was also not affected by the infection. Chitosan treated bees collected more pollen and nectar than healthy and infected bees. Memory in the bees was temporarily impaired by chitosan but was not affected by peptidoglycan, nor was it affected by Nosema ceranae. This study shows that chitosan and peptidoglycan provide benefits by partially reducing Nosema ceranae infection while increasing survivorship of honey bees. Also, chitosan and peptidoglycan increased the collection of pollen and nectar, which may improve bee health and colony productivity. These benefits could result in more honey produced, more crops pollinated and more healthy bee colonies.
Nosema disease is a major disease of honey bees caused by two species of microsporidia, Nosema apis and N. ceranae. Current control involves using antibiotics, which is undesirable because of possible antibiotic resistance and contamination. In this study, flagellin, zymosan, chitosan, and peptidoglycan were investigated as alternatives for controlling N. ceranae infections and for their effect on bee survivorship and behaviors. Chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly reduced the infection, and significantly increased survivorship of infected bees, with chitosan being more effective. However, neither compound altered the bees’ hygienic behavior, which was also not affected by the infection. Chitosan significantly increased pollen foraging and both compounds significantly increased non-pollen foraging compared to healthy and infected bees. Memory retention, evaluated with the proboscis extension reflex assay, was temporarily impaired by chitosan but was not affected by peptidoglycan, nor was it affected by N. ceranae infection compared to the non-infected bees. This study indicates that chitosan and peptidoglycan provide benefits by partially reducing N. ceranae spore numbers while increasing survivorship compared to N. ceranae infected bees. Also, chitosan and peptidoglycan improved aspects of foraging behavior even more than in healthy bees, showing that they may act as stimulators of important honey bee behaviors.
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Keywords:
Nosema cerana; Apis mellifera; foraging behavior; hygienic behavior; proboscis extension reflex; immune inducers; CCD
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MDPI and ACS Style
Valizadeh, P.; Guzman-Novoa, E.; Goodwin, P.H. Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors. Insects 2020, 11, 572. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11090572
AMA Style
Valizadeh P, Guzman-Novoa E, Goodwin PH. Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors. Insects. 2020; 11(9):572. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11090572
Chicago/Turabian StyleValizadeh, Pegah, Ernesto Guzman-Novoa, and Paul H. Goodwin. 2020. "Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors" Insects 11, no. 9: 572. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11090572
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