Application of Stable Isotope Tracer to Study Runoff Generation during Different Types of Rainfall Events
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Methods
3.1. Hydrometric Measurements
3.2. Sampling and Analysis
3.3. Hydrograph Separation
- (1)
- The stable tracer composition of pre-event water and event water aresignificantly different.
- (2)
- The stable tracer composition of rainfall and throughfall is constant in time and space, or variations of them can be measured.
- (3)
- The isotope concentration in soil water can be negligible, or the isotope concentration in soil water is similar to the isotope concentration in groundwater. Soil water and groundwater are the main components of the pre-event water.
- (4)
- Surface storage which contributes to stream at the outlet of the watershed could be ignored.
4. Results
4.1. Isotope Variation in Precipitation
4.2. Local Meteoric Water Line
4.3. Deuterium Excess
4.4. Hydrograph Separations
5. Discussion
5.1. Relationship between Deuterium and Oxygen-18 in Precipitation
- (1)
- Characteristics of ocean surface water vapor. Hydrologists tried to roughly calculate the mean stable isotope concentrate of ocean atmosphere systems under closed conditions with mean humidity of 75% which is based on the assumption that the isotope tracer of evaporative flux and precipitation are the same (δ18O = −4‰ and δ2H = −22‰). In practice, based on the isotope data collected by IAEA-WMO precipitation network, the average isotopic concentration of the ocean precipitation is δ18O = −2.5‰ to 3‰ which assume isotopic fractionation of saline water under equilibrium condition with a temperature of 20 °C. However, as the temperature of ocean surface has seasonal variation, the air-water interaction conditions also change. Typhoon events during August and September are mainly caused by frequent temperate and tropical cyclones whose evaporation of ocean water is expected to be very strong. We can deduce that the rate of water vapor diffusion is greater than the rate of the condensation in the air-water interaction zone. The surface temperature of the ocean is relatively high with a high net evaporation flux which indicated that the isotope composition of water vapor is more depleted than average isotopic concentration of ocean precipitation. Nevertheless, for plum rain event, the isotopic concentration of water vapor from the surface of the ocean may not be the most significant factor because of the time it takes for marine air parcels to reach the watershed.
- (2)
- Migration of marine air parcels. As the marine air parcel moves over the ocean into the continents, different vapor clouds undergo different processes in storm trajectories. The plum rain event is identified as mainly controlled by Southwest and Southeast monsoon which refers to the warm and humid marine air parcel. During the monsoon season, the Northwest wind gradually weaken while the summer monsoon strengthen. Due to the blocking effect of the cold front, warm and humid marine air parcels climb along the cold front slowly which will lead to the temperature of marine air parcel reducing and the subsequent occurrence of the plum rain events. In addition, the marine air parcel moves slowly along the terrestrial part of hydrology cycle which indicates that the air moisture evaporated from the continent will play a significant role in the isotope of precipitation dilution process. However, marine air parcels of typhoon rain move very quickly; they only take a few days to reach the Hemuqiao watershed. The increasing water vapor from the re-evaporated fresh water with relatively depleted isotope concentration can be neglected, but the continuous rainout effect is known to be a dominant factor in depleting the stable isotope concentration of marine air parcel.
- (3)
- Exchange and evaporation effect. During the rainfall, the exchange effect between falling raindrops and atmospheric water vapor cannot be ignored. During the course of plum rain events, the air parcel lifted to a high altitude with very low temperature, and then water vapor condenses into raindrops which fall into ground rapidly. The exchange effect also occurred in the clouds, which will result in the establishment of isotopic equilibrium with relatively depleted environmental vapor. Then, with raindrops falling from the cloud to the watershed, exchange and evaporation effect also take place between raindrops and ambient air. The character of plum rain is long-time small rainfall intensity, which has more obvious exchange and evaporation effect, so the stable isotope tracer of precipitation in plum rain events is relative depleted. However, for typhoon events, the character is short-time heavy rain which makes exchange and evaporation effect relatively less notable.
5.2. Runoff Generation Mechanism
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gat, J.R. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in the hydrologic cycle. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 1996, 24, 225–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qu, S.M.; Bao, W.M.; McDonnell, J.J.; Yu, Z.B.; Shi, P. Isotope tracer in watershed hydrological modeling. Adv. Water Sci. 2008, 19, 587–596. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Sklash, M.G.; Farvolden, R.N. The role of groundwater in storm runoff. J. Hydrol. 1979, 43, 45–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onda, Y.; Tsujimura, M.; Fujihara, J.I.; Ito, J. Runoff generation mechanisms in high-relief mountainous watersheds with different underlying geology. J. Hydrol. 2006, 331, 659–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDonnell, J.J.; Sivapalan, M.; Vaché, K.; Dunn, S.; Grant, G.; Haggerty, R.; Hinz, C.; Hooper, R.; Kirchner, J.; Roderick, M.L. Moving beyond heterogeneity and process complexity: A new vision for watershed hydrology. Water Resour. Res. 2007, 43, 931–936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodgers, P.; Soulsby, C.; Waldron, S. Stable isotope tracers as diagnostic tools in upscaling flow path understanding and residence time estimates in a mountainous mesoscale catchment. Hydrol. Process. 2005, 19, 2291–2307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGuire, K.J.; McDonnell, J.J.; Weiler, M.; Kendall, C.; McGlynn, B.L.; Welker, J.M.; Serbert, J. The role of topography on catchment-scale water residence time. Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41, 302–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mueller, M.H.; Weingartner, R.; Alewell, C. Importance of vegetation, topography and flow paths for water transit times of base flow in alpine headwater catchments. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2013, 17, 1661–1679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Segura, C.; James, A.L.; Lazzati, D.; Roult, N.T. Scaling relationships for event water contributions and transit times in small-forested catchments in Eastern Quebec. Water Resour. Res. 2012, 48, 7502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buttle, J.M. Fundamentals of small catchment hydrology. In Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology; McDonell, J.J., Kendall, C., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1998; pp. 1–49. [Google Scholar]
- Burns, D.A.; McDonnell, J.J.; Hooper, R.P.; Peters, N.E.; Freer, J.E.; Kendall, C.; Beven, K. Quantifying contributions to storm runoff through end-member mixing analysis and hydrologic measurements at the Panola Mountain Research Watershed (Georgia, USA). Hydrol. Process. 2001, 15, 1903–1924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Małoszewski, P.; Zuber, A. Determining the turnover time of groundwater systems with the aid of environmental tracers: 1. Models and their applicability. J. Hydrol. 1982, 57, 207–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herczeg, A.L.; Barnes, C.J.; Macumber, P.G.; Olley, J.M. A stable isotope investigation of groundwater-surface water interactions at Lake Tyrrell, Victoria, Australia. Chem. Geol. 1992, 96, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsuo, S.; Friedman, I. Deuterium content in fractionally collected rainwater. J. Geophys. Res. 1967, 72, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsui, E.; Salati, E.; Ribeiro, M.N.G.; Reis, C.M.; Tancredi, A.C.S.N.F.; Gat, J.R. Precipitation in the central amazon basin: The isotopic composition of rain and atmospheric moisture at Belém and Manaus. Acta Amazon. 1983, 13, 307–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohsawa, S.; Yusa, Y. Isotopic characteristics of typhonic rainwater: Typhoons No. 13 (1993) and No. 6 (1996). Limnology 2000, 1, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siegenthaler, U.; Oeschger, H. Correlation of 18O in precipitation with temperature and altitude. Nature 1980, 285, 314–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poage, M.A.; Chamberlain, C.P. Empirical relationships between elevation and the stable isotope composition of precipitation and surface waters: Considerations for studies of paleoelevation change. Am. J. Sci. 2001, 301, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dansgaard, W. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 1964, 16, 436–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, H.; Gordon, L.I. Deuterium and oxygen 18 variations in the ocean and marine atmosphere. In Proceedings of the Stable Isotopes in Oceanographic Studies and Paleotemperatures, Spoleto, Italy, 1965; Tongiogi, E., Ed.; Consiglio Nazionale Delle Richerche, Laboratorio di Geologia Nucleare, V. Lishi e F. Publ.: Pisa, Italy, 1965; pp. 9–130. [Google Scholar]
- Rindsberger, M.; Magaritz, M.; Carmi, I.; Gilad, D. The relation between air mass trajectories and the water isotope composition of rain in the Mediterranean Sea area. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 10, 43–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galewsky, J.; Steen-Larsen, H.C.; Field, R.D.; Worden, J.; Risi, C.; Schneider, M. Stable isotopes in atmospheric water vapor and applications to the hydrologic cycle. Rev. Geophys. 2016, 54, 809–865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, W.S.; Wei, F.L.; Ma, Y.M.; Liu, W.J.; Zhang, Y.Y.; Luo, L.; Tian, L.; Xu, B.Q.; Qu, D.M. Stable isotope variations in precipitation over Deqin on the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau during different seasons related to various meteorological factors and moisture sources. Atmos. Res. 2016, 170, 123–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, T.; Zhang, J.R.; Liu, X.; Yao, L. Variations of stable isotopes in precipitation and water vapor sources in Nanjing area. J. China Hydrol. 2013, 33, 25–31. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Dinçer, T.; Payne, B.R.; Florkowski, T.; Martinec, J.; Tongiorgi, E. Snowmelt runoff from measurements of tritium and oxygen-18. Water Resour. Res. 1970, 6, 110–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fritz, P.; Cherry, J.A.; Sklash, M.; Weyer, K.U. Storm runoff analysis using environmental isotopes and major ions. Panel Proc. Ser. Int. Atomic Energy Agency 1976, 36, 13–24. [Google Scholar]
- Vitvar, T.; Aggarawal, P.K.; McDonnell, J.J. A review of isotope applications in catchment hydrology. In Isotopes in the Water Cycle: Present and Future of a Developing Science; Aggarwal, P.K., Gat, J.R., Froehlich, K.F.O., Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 151–169. [Google Scholar]
- Boy, J.; Valarezo, C.; Wilcke, W. Water flow paths in soil control element exports in an Andean tropical montane forest. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2008, 59, 1209–1227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niedzialek, J.M.; Ogden, F.L. First-order catchment mass balance during the wet season in the Panama Canal Watershed. J. Hydrol. 2012, 462–463, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klaus, J.; McDonnell, J.J. Hydrograph separation using stable isotopes: Review and evaluation. J. Hydrol. 2013, 505, 47–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shanley, J.B.; Kendall, C.; Smith, T.E.; Wolock, D.M.; McDonnell, J.J. Controls on old and new water contributions to stream flow at some nested catchments in Vermont, USA. Hydrol. Process. 2002, 16, 589–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomi, T.; Asano, Y.; Uchida, T.; Onda, Y.; Sidle, R.C.; Miyata, S.; Kosugi, K.; Mizugaki, S.; Fukuyama, T.; Fukushima, T. Evaluation of storm runoff pathways in steep nested catchments draining a Japanese cypress forest in central Japan: A geochemical approach. Hydrol. Process. 2010, 24, 550–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDonnell, J.J. A rationale for old water discharge through macropores in a steep, humid catchment. Water Resour. Res. 1990, 26, 2821–2832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stumpp, C.; Stichler, W.; Maloszewski, P. Application of the environmental isotope δ 18O to study water flow in unsaturated soils planted with different crops: Case study of a weighable lysimeter from the research field in Neuherberg, Germany. J. Hydrol. 2009, 368, 68–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vivoni, E.R.; Entekhabi, D.; Bras, R.L.; lvanov, V.Y. Controls on runoff generation and scale-dependence in a distributed hydrologic model. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2007, 11, 1683–1701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, A.L.; Roulet, N.T. Antecedent moisture conditions and catchment morphology as controls on spatial patterns of runoff generation in small forest catchment. J. Hydrol. 2009, 377, 351–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteith, S.S.; Buttle, J.M.; Hazlett, P.W.; Beall, F.D.; Semkin, R.G.; Jeffries, D.S. Paired-basin comparison of hydrological response in harvested and undisturbed hardwood forests during snowmelt in central Ontario: I. Streamflow, groundwater and flowpath behaviour. Hydrol. Process. 2010, 20, 1095–1116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pellerin, B.A.; Wollheim, W.M.; Feng, X.; Vörösmarty, C.J. The application of electrical conductivity as a tracer for hydrograph separation in urban catchments. Hydrol. Process. 2008, 22, 1810–1818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feng, D.; Liu, J.; Chen, X. Spatial variation of hillslope soil chemical attributes. J. Mt. Sci. 2011, 29, 427–432. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Sklash, M.G.; Farvolden, R.N.; Fritz, P. Erratum: A conceptual model of watershed response to rainfall, develop. Can. J. Earth Sci. 1976, 63, 1016–1020. [Google Scholar]
- Buttle, J.M. Isotope hydrograph separations and rapid delivery of pre-event water from drainage basins. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 1994, 18, 16–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, Y.; Wei, F.; Yang, H.; Jiang, Y. Discussion on using antecedent precipitation index to supplement relative soil moisture data series. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2011, 10, 1489–1495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, H. Isotopic variation in meteoric waters. Science 1961, 133, 1702–1703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, W.; Liu, W.; Lu, H.; Duan, W.; Li, H. Runoff generation in small catchments under a native rain forest and a rubber plantation in xishuangbanna, southwestern china. Water Environ. J. 2011, 25, 138–147. [Google Scholar]
- Qu, S.M.; Shan, S.; Chen, X.; Zhou, M.M.; Liu, H. Isotopic analysis of water cycle elements in different land covers in a small headwater watershed. Water Policy 2017, 19, wp2017244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Preicpitation Events | Date | Type | P-Total Rainfall (mm) | Temperature (°C) | Rain Intensity (mm/h) | Antecedent Precipitation Index (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Storm 1 | 7–12 August 2015 | Typhoon rain | 126.8 | 25.75 | 5.12 | 4.07 |
Storm 2 | 21–28 August 2015 | Typhoon rain | 47.6 | 29.30 | 0.80 | 45.41 |
Storm 3 | 27 September 2015–2 October | Typhoon rain | 58.8 | 22.87 | 2.01 | 15.18 |
Storm 4 | 22 June 2016–1 July 2016 | Plum rain | 132.0 | 21.80 | 2.24 | 45.91 |
Storm 5 | 21–28 June 2017 | Plum rain | 65.8 | 23.15 | 0.46 | 36.64 |
Parameter | Typhoon Rain | Plum Rain | Stable Isotope of Precipitation in China |
---|---|---|---|
Range of δ18O (‰) | −4.03–−10.88 | −5.37–−14.33 | −24 to +2 |
Range of δ2H (‰) | −25.0–−75.8 | −40.4–−118.6 | −190 to +20 |
Standard Deviation of δ18O (‰) | 1.94 | 2.00 | na |
Standard Deviation of δ2H (‰) | 14.97 | 15.83 | na |
Parameter | Typhoon Rain | Plum Rain |
---|---|---|
Range of d-excess | 7.03 to 16.53 | 4.07 to 19.12 |
Arithmetically average | 10.31 | 11.12 |
Standard Deviation of d-excess | 2.15 | 3.95 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gou, J.; Qu, S.; Shi, P.; Li, D.; Chen, X.; Wang, Y.; Shan, S.; Si, W. Application of Stable Isotope Tracer to Study Runoff Generation during Different Types of Rainfall Events. Water 2018, 10, 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050538
Gou J, Qu S, Shi P, Li D, Chen X, Wang Y, Shan S, Si W. Application of Stable Isotope Tracer to Study Runoff Generation during Different Types of Rainfall Events. Water. 2018; 10(5):538. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050538
Chicago/Turabian StyleGou, Jianfeng, Simin Qu, Peng Shi, Dachen Li, Xueqiu Chen, Yifan Wang, Shuai Shan, and Wei Si. 2018. "Application of Stable Isotope Tracer to Study Runoff Generation during Different Types of Rainfall Events" Water 10, no. 5: 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050538
APA StyleGou, J., Qu, S., Shi, P., Li, D., Chen, X., Wang, Y., Shan, S., & Si, W. (2018). Application of Stable Isotope Tracer to Study Runoff Generation during Different Types of Rainfall Events. Water, 10(5), 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050538