Next Article in Journal
Chitosan Functionalized with 2-Methylpyridine Cross-Linker Cellulose to Adsorb Pb(II) from Water
Next Article in Special Issue
Investigation of the Release Mechanism and Mould Resistance of Citral-Loaded Bamboo Strips
Previous Article in Journal
Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Disintegration under a Composting Process of Poly(lactic acid)/Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PLA/PHB) Blends
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Polymers
Volume 13
Issue 18
10.3390/polym13183173
polymers-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composite: Influence of Process Parameters on Decay Resistance against Wood-Degrading Fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum

by
Minzhen Bao
1,*,
Neng Li
1,
Yongjie Bao
1,
Jingpeng Li
1,
Hao Zhong
1,
Yuhe Chen
1 and
Yanglun Yu
2,*
1
Key Laboratory of High Efficient Processing of Bamboo of Zhejiang Province, China National Bamboo Research Center, Hangzhou 310012, China
2
Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3173; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183173
Submission received: 30 August 2021 / Revised: 15 September 2021 / Accepted: 17 September 2021 / Published: 18 September 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The process parameters significantly influence the preparation and final properties of outdoor wood mats-based engineering composite (OWMEC). During outdoor use, wood composites are susceptible to destruction by rot fungi. Herein, the role of process parameters such as density and resin content on OWMEC resistance to fungal decay was investigated. The poplar OWMEC samples were exposed to white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor and brown-rot fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum for a period of 12 weeks. The chemical composition, crystallinity, and morphology were evaluated to investigate the effect of process parameters on the chemical composition and microstructure of the decayed OWMEC. With an increase in the density and resin content, the mass loss of the decayed OWMEC decreased. The highest antifungal effect against T. versicolor (12.34% mass loss) and G. trabeum (19.43% mass loss) were observed at a density of 1.15 g/m3 and resin content of 13%. As results of the chemical composition and microstructure measurements, the resistance of OWMEC against T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi was improved remarkably by increasing the density and resin content. The results of this study will provide a technical basis to improve the decay resistance of OWMEC in outdoor environments.

1. Introduction

Wood, as a renewable material, is in high demand for construction and building applications. It can be converted into engineered wood composites with standardized dimensions, such as wood oriented strand board, glue laminated wood, and reconstituted wood lumber. Scrimber, a promising type of engineered wood composite, is marketed as being moisture resistant and suitable for outdoor structural use [1]. Wood mats-based engineering composite (WMEC), as a novel engineered scrimber composite, consists of mechanically defibered wood fiber mats soaked with a phenolic resin and compacted to up to three times the original density of the wood using hot or cold pressing [2]. The development of WMECs refers to the defibration technology, bonding technology, and forming process [3,4].
During outdoor use, wood and its composites are susceptible to discoloration by mold fungi, destruction by rot fungi, and attack by insects. Biological attack limits the utilization of wood materials because of physical, chemical, and biological changes occurring on the surface and inside the material. Discoloration by mold fungi can cause high-value loss of wood composites when exposed to humid or moist conditions [5]. Biodeterioration by white and brown rot fungi can alter the chemical composition of wood [6]. Witomski et al. [7] reported that the bending strength and compressive strength of Scots pine wood can decrease by up to 20% with only 7% mass loss. The outdoor service life of wood composites is closely related to their deterioration under ambient conditions.
The degradation rate of wood composites is related to internal parameters such as the moisture, density, and resin content. Kataoka et al. [8] reported that the spreading rate and extent of fungal degradation were dependent on the density of the composite. Furthermore, accelerated weathering is more likely to occur in low-density composites [9]. Previous studies have indicated that the dimensional stability and photostabilization of wood composites can be improved by increasing the concentration of phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin [10,11]. To improve the durability of wood composites, the common industrial practice is to adjust the resin content to over 13% and density up to 1.10 g/cm³. The mass loss of bamboo scrimber after 12 weeks of fungal erosion was less than 5% [12,13]. However, the decay resistance of WMECs has not been adequately investigated, especially for different densities and resin contents.
In order to expand the applicability and extend service lifetime of outdoor WEMC (OWMEC), more attention should be paid to its decay resistance. Impregnation of PF resin and compression of wood have been shown to improve the durability and dimensional stability of wood [14,15]. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the resistance of OWMECs with different densities and resin contents exposed to Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum fungi for a period of 12 weeks. The wet chemical method, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to analyze the changes in the chemical and physical properties of the OWMECs before and after fungal erosion. These analyses provide technical support for the outdoor application of OWMECs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Poplar wood (Populus canadensis Moench) with a diameter of approximately 400 mm and a basic density of 0.39 g/cm3 was purchased from Langfang Senyuan Wood Co., Ltd., Hebei, China. PF resin was purchased from Dynea Chemical Industry Co., Guangdong, China. The pH, solid content, and viscosity of the PF resin were 10.5 ± 0.2, 46.8% ± 1.0%, and 41.2% ± 2.0%, respectively.

2.2. Preparation of Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composites (OWMECs)

The wood was manufactured into OWMEC according to a previously published method [2]. Briefly, the wood logs were peeled and split into fiber mats with a thickness of 6 mm. After air-drying, the mats were impregnated with PF resin to achieve a target resin content based on the weight of dried mats. Thereafter, the resin-impregnated wood fiber mats were air dried again to obtain a moisture content of 12 wt.%. Finally, the fiber mats were laminated along the grain in a mold and hot-pressed at 140 °C for 30 min to obtain the OWMEC (400 × 150 × 18 mm3). OWMEC samples with different resin contents (8, 13, and 18 wt.%) were obtained with a density of 0.95 g/cm3. By changing the mat weight, OWMEC samples with different densities (0.85, 1.00, and 1.15 g/cm3) were also obtained with a resin content of 13 wt.%. All the OWMECs were conditioned in a room at 65% relative humidity (RH) and 20 °C for 2 weeks prior to testing.

2.3. Decay Resistance

The resistance of the OWMEC specimens and control specimens (poplar wood) against decay by white rot T. versicolor fungi and brown rot G. trabeum fungi was assessed in accordance with the Chinese Standard GB/T 13942.1-2009 [16]. The dimensions of each specimen were 20 × 20 × 10 mm3. Six samples were tested in parallel for each group. White-rot T. versicolor fungi or brown-rot G. trabeum fungi were inoculated on malt agar medium and pre-incubated for 10 days. Once the mycelium had covered the entire surface of the malt-agar medium, the test specimens were introduced on the sterile glass sticks for 12 weeks at 28 °C and 80% RH. After incubation, the decayed samples were gently cleaned to remove the mycelium adhered to the surface of the samples and oven-dried at 103 °C to constant weight. The percentage mass loss (ML) of the samples was calculated after 12 weeks.
M L =   W 1 − W 2 W 1 × 100 %
where W1 is the weight of samples before decay and W2 is the weight of the samples after 12 weeks of incubation.

2.4. Chemical Analysis

Changes in the chemical composition of the healthy and decayed OWMEC samples were evaluated following the Chinese standards. The specimens were oven dried, milled, and sieved through a mesh with holes of 0.4 mm. Then, the contents of acid-insoluble lignin (GB/T 2677.8-1994) [17], holocellulose (GB/T 2677.10-1995) [18], and α-cellulose (GB/T 744-1989) [19] were determined.

2.5. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Analysis

FTIR spectra of the OWMECs before and after 12 weeks of fungal exposure were obtained using an FTIR spectrometer (Vertex 70, Bruker, Japan). KBr disks containing 1% of the finely ground samples were employed. Each spectrum was recorded in absorbance units from 1800 to 800 cm−1 as an average of 16 scans at a spectral resolution of 4 cm−1.

2.6. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis

The crystalline structures of the samples were identified using a Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer equipped with a Cu Kα X-ray source (λ = 1.5404 Å) operated at 40 kV and 40 mA. The X-ray patterns were plotted within the range of 10–80° at a rate of 2° min−1. The degree of crystallinity (Cr) was determined using the following equation:
Cr = A crystalline A total × 100 %
where Acrystalline is the sum of all areas of crystallographic reflections and Atotal is the total area of both the crystalline and amorphous contributions.

2.7. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis

Small blocks (3 × 5 × 5 mm3) were cut from OWMECs before and after fungal exposure. Sections of 20 µm were sliced off from the cross-section of each block using a sliding microtome until a smooth, clear surface was obtained. Then, all block surfaces were gold-coated and examined using a scanning electron microscope (Hitachi-S4800) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to study the effect of process parameters on decay resistance of the OWEMCs at the 0.05 significance level. Duncan’s tests were employed to multiply compare the properties of OWEMCs with different resin contents and densities.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Mass Loss Analysis

The appearance of the specimens exposed to T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The original shape of the poplar wood was severely altered, leaving only a small piece of wood. In contrast, OWMEC specimens retained their shape. White decay marks were occasionally observed on the surface of the OWMEC specimens. Furthermore, there were many cracks and holes on the surface of the OWMEC samples with low resin content and density. This indicates that an increase in the resin content and density can improve the decay resistance of OWMEC.
Mass loss analysis can predict the potential performance loss of materials. The mass losses of the specimens after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. For the reference poplar wood samples, mass losses of approximately 92.62% and 93.41% were observed for white- and brown-rot fungi, respectively. This demonstrates that poplar wood is easily destroyed by these fungi. In comparison, the mass loss of the OWMEC samples was significantly reduced, indicating that the fungal resistance is greatly improved when poplar is made into poplar OWMEC. The mass loss of the OWMEC samples was dependent on the resin content and density. As the density and resin content increased, the mass loss decreased. The OWMEC with a resin content of 18% and density of 0.95 g/m3 exhibited mass losses as low as 23.24% and 27.88% after fungal attack by T. versicolor and G. trabeum, respectively. These values increased to 29.05% and 31.27%, respectively, when the resin content and density were 13% and 0.95 g/m3, respectively. These results confirm the results of a previous study, which reported that PF resin and densification had a certain inhibitory effect on fungal decay [20]. The OWMEC with a density and resin content of 1.15 g/m3 and 13%, respectively, exhibited mass losses of just 12.34% and 19.43% after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi, respectively. Therefore, poplar OWMEC with a high resin content and density shows excellent corrosion resistance, making it suitable for use outdoors.

3.2. Chemical Analysis

Table 1 and Table 2 show the holocellulose, α-cellulose, and acid-insoluble lignin content of the OWMEC samples before and after fungal decay. The percentage of holocellulose in the decayed OWMEC samples was lower than that in the healthy samples, whereas the percentage of acid-insoluble lignin was increased.
As shown in Table 1, the holocellulose and α-cellulose contents of the OWMEC samples decreased with increasing resin content, whereas the acid-insoluble lignin content increased. This is because the increase in resin content per unit volume and decrease in fiber content led to a decrease in the cellulose content. Regardless of the type of fungi, the holocellulose and α-cellulose contents of the decayed OWMEC decreased as the resin content increased, whereas the acid insoluble lignin increased. With an increase in the resin content, the holocellulose and α-cellulose contents in the T. versicolor-exposed OWMEC decreased, whereas the acid-insoluble lignin content increased. The holocellulose and α-cellulose contents in the G. trabeum-exposed OWMEC first increased and then decreased, whereas the acid-insoluble lignin gradually increased.
Table 2 shows that the holocellulose and α-cellulose contents of the OWMEC samples increased with increasing density, whereas the acid-insoluble lignin decreased. Regardless of the type of fungi, the holocellulose content of the decayed OWMEC decreased as the density increased, whereas the acid-insoluble lignin content increased.
Microorganisms change the chemical composition of wood during decay. Regardless of the type of fungi, the holocellulose content of the decayed OWMEC decreased as the resin content or density increased, whereas the acid insoluble lignin content increased. Both fungi can simultaneously decompose the major chemical components of wood cell walls [21,22,23]. However, the degradation rate of lignin was not as rapid as that of holocellulose, so the relative content of lignin showed an increasing trend. The amount of holocellulose decomposed by G. trabeum fungi was greater than that by T. versicolor fungi, indicating that G. trabeum has a higher ability to decompose holocellulose than T. versicolor. These observations are consistent with previous findings that brown-rot fungi primarily degrade holocellulose [24,25].

3.3. FTIR Analysis

Figure 5 and Figure 6 show FTIR spectra of the OWMECs with different resin contents and densities before and after 12 weeks of fungal attack. The region from 1800 to 800 cm−1 is associated with various functional group characteristic of wood components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin). The FTIR spectra of the healthy OWMEC specimen exhibited carbohydrate-associated bands at 1740, 1373, 1159, and 898 cm−1 and lignin-associated bands at 1600, 1510, 1462, 1425, 1333, and 1244 cm−1 [26,27]. Relative increases and decreases in the intensities of these characteristic absorption peaks indicate chemical changes in the OWMEC. After 12 weeks of decay, the intensity of each peak for each OWMEC sample decreased to some extent. However, the absorption intensity decreased slowly as the resin content or density increased. These results demonstrate that, not only were hemicellulose and lignin decomposed by fungi, but cellulose was degraded to different degrees. The results are similar to those in earlier studies, which showed that both white- and brown-rot fungi degrade carbohydrates and lignin in wood cell walls [28].
In the FTIR spectra of the decayed OWMECs, the intensity of the peak near 1740 cm−1, which corresponds to the C=O stretching vibration of the acetyl and carboxyl groups, was reduced. This indicates that the hemicellulose was degraded by both white- and brown-rot fungi. The intensities of the peaks located at 1600 and 1510 cm−1, which represent the aromatic skeleton of lignin, decreased significantly, indicating that lignin was decomposed during the fungal decay tests. The intensities of the bands at 1373, 1159, and 898 cm−1, which correspond mainly to polysaccharides (hemicellulose and cellulose), decreased after decay treatment. Moreover, the intensities of the peaks at 1333, 1244, and 1103 cm−1, which are associated with lignin–carbohydrate complexes, also decreased. The change in the relative intensities of these peaks shows that the consumption of hemicellulose and lignin reached a new balance. The fungal decay-induced chemical changes to the lignin were greater in the OWMEC with a density of 0.85 g/cm3 or resin content of 8% than in that with a density of 1.00 g/cm3 or resin content of 13%. When the resin content was 18.0% or the density was 1.15 g/cm3, the intensity of the aromatic ring structure of lignin in the T. versicolor or G. trabeum-decayed OWMEC did not change significantly.

3.4. XRD Analysis

The XRD patterns of the OWMECs presented in Figure 7 and Figure 8 show sharp and strong diffraction peaks, indicating the crystalline nature of the OWMEC composites. The peaks at 16.3° and 22.5° were assigned to the (110) and (200) planes, respectively, revealing that the decayed OWMECs with different resin contents and densities possessed a typical wood phase. An increase in the signal of both the (110) and (200) peaks in decayed OWMECs can be observed in Figure 7 and Figure 8. When the XRD intensity is normalized with the (200) peak, the valley at 2θ = 18° appears to be slightly lower for the decayed samples than that for the healthy (control) sample. The (200) diffraction peak of decayed OWMECs was narrower than that of the control OWMEC, indicating that the lattice structure of the cellulose crystal zone was destroyed during the decay process.
The Cr of the OWMECs increased with increasing resin content and density, regardless of the T. versicolor or G. trabeum decay treatment (see Table 3 and Table 4). The Cr of the healthy (control) OWMEC was 16.34%. The Cr increased to 21.81% for the T. versicolor-decayed OWMEC with 18% resin content and 21.45% for the G. trabeum-decayed OWMEC with 18% resin content, indicating respective increases of 33.48% and 31.27% when compared to the control OWMEC. The Cr increased to 23.27% for the T. versicolor-decayed OWMEC with a density of 1.15 g/cm3 and 23.79% for the G. trabeum-decayed OWMEC with a density of 1.15 g/cm3, indicating respective increases of 42.41% and 45.59% when compared to the control OWMEC.
The XRD results showed that the Cr of the decayed OWMECs increased with increasing resin content and density. The greater Cr may be because the fungal degradation rate of hemicellulose is higher than that of cellulose. In contrast to hemicellulose, the decomposition of hydrogen bond-ordered cellulose is a complex procedure. Fackler et al. [29] found that amorphous polysaccharides are more susceptible than crystalline cellulose structures to fungal decay, which results in an increase in overall crystallinity. Furthermore, the higher the density, the higher the fiber content per unit volume.

3.5. SEM Analysis

Figure 9 shows the effect of the resin content on the microstructure of T. versicolor-decayed OWMEC. Exposure to T. versicolor fungi causes ruptures in the walls of all cell elements, such as vessels, fibers, and rays. The cell walls of the vessel of decayed OWMEC with 8% resin content formed rupture gaps and extended to the walls of other cells (Figure 9a). The wood ray was disintegrated, leaving only a small number of residual fragments (Figure 9b). The T. versicolor fungi attacked the fiber cells by thinning the cell walls and creating bore holes on the walls (Figure 9c). In contrast, the cell walls of the vessels of the decayed OWMEC with 18% resin content were not seriously damaged, and hyphae were occasionally found in the cells (Figure 9d). The fiber cells away from the vessel walls were found with intact walls, as shown in Figure 9d. A few cracks were observed in the ray cells (Figure 9e), and holes were observed between the fiber cells (Figure 9f). These results demonstrate that the vessels and rays were more vulnerable than the fibers, which were relatively resistant to fungal action. These relative differences are related to deviations in the cell wall thickness, in that the vessel and ray cell walls in poplar are much thinner than the fiber walls.
Figure 10 shows the effect of density on the microstructure of T. versicolor-decayed OWMEC. Colonization of fungal hyphae within the vessel lumina and opening of the vessel walls were observed in the OWMEC with a density of 0.85 g/cm3 (Figure 10a). The vessel cell walls contained several discontinuous gaps, indicating degradation by pit erosion. The rays and fibers were also deeply eroded by the T. versicolor fungi (Figure 10b,c). Erosion channels with a U-shaped incision appeared on the fiber cell walls, whereby two or more pores had fused together to form large pores on the fiber cell wall (Figure 10b). This illustrates the degradation of the cell walls. Figure 10c reveals that the thickness of the fiber wall decreased from the lumen side to the middle lamellae. Furthermore, erosion troughs formed in the fiber walls. Many large bore holes and loose fiber walls can also be observed in Figure 10c. Notably, in the OWMEC with a density of 1.15 g/cm3, all of the cell types retained the compressed cell size and morphology of healthy OWMEC. The morphological changes to the OWMEC with a density of 1.15 g/cm3 were not prominent, demonstrating that the extent of damage was greatly reduced.
The SEM images of the decayed OWMEC samples confirmed that the resin content and density were related to the decay resistance. In particular, a high resin content and density enhanced the decay resistance of the OWMEC. Phenolic resins containing various active groups react with the active groups of the cell walls of OWMEC to form stable cross-linking, which effectively improves the corrosion resistance [14,20,30]. The space between the cells was reduced in the higher-density OWMEC, indicating that the diffusion or penetration of hyphae and degrading enzymes was hindered. Moreover, the high density also increased the content of the fiber and phenolic resin, which effectively inhibited fungal corrosion.

4. Conclusions

The effects of resin content and density on the resistance of OWMECs to fungal decay were investigated by fungal decay tests. Biological attack resulted in a loss of mass of OWMECs. Depending on the mass loss analysis, a decrease in mass from 32.20% to 12.34% for T. versicolor and 30.83% to 19.43% for G. trabeum was observed in the OWMECs (density from 0.85 g/cm3 to 1.15 g/cm3). A decrease in mass from 40.61% to 23.24% for T. versicolor and 48.19% to 27.88% for G. trabeum was also observed in the OWMECs (resin content from 8% to 18%). The decay resistance of the OWMEC could be enhanced by increasing the resin content or density. The chemical analysis and FTIR measurements showed that brown-rot fungus G. trabeum predominantly disintegrated the cellulose and hemicellulose, whereas white-rot fungus T. versicolor decayed both holocellulose and lignin; however, the chemical composition was less affected by fungal decal at a higher resin content and density. The Cr of the scrimbers increased with increasing resin content and density, regardless of the T. versicolor or G. trabeum decay treatment. The SEM results confirmed that the resin content and density were related to the decay resistance of OWMEC. In particular, a high resin content and density enhanced the decay resistance of the OWMEC. An appropriate process factor should be performed to improve the outdoor durability of the OWMEC.

Author Contributions

Investigation, M.B. and N.L.; writing‒original draft preparation, M.B. and N.L.; writing–review and editing, Y.Y.; validation, Y.B., and J.L.; visualization, H.Z.; supervision, Y.C.; funding acquisition, M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors appreciate the financial support from the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (LQ20C160001), Provincial Key Research Plan of Zhejiang Province (2021C02012) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Non-profit Research Institution of Zhejiang Province (Study on Preparation and Application Technology of Bamboo Organic Anti-mildew Microcapsules).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Zhang, Y.H.; Huang, Y.X.; Qi, Y.; Yu, W.J. Novel engineered scrimber with outstanding dimensional stability from finely fluffed poplar veneers. Measurement 2018, 124, 318–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Bao, M.Z.; Li, N.; Huang, C.J.; Chen, Y.H.; Yu, W.J.; Yu, Y.L. Fabrication, physical–mechanical properties and morphological characterizations of novel scrimber composite. Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod. 2019, 77, 741–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. He, M.J.; Zhang, J.; Li, Z.; Li, M.L. Production and mechanical performance of scrimber composite manufactured from poplar wood for structural applications. J. Wood Sci. 2016, 62, 429–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Zhang, Y.M.; Huang, X.A.; Zhang, Y.H.; Yu, Y.L.; Yu, W.J. Scrimber board (SB) manufacturing by a new method and characterization of SB’s mechanical properties and dimensional stability. Holzforschung 2017, 72, 283–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Kim, M.J.; Choi, Y.S.; Oh, J.J.; Kim, G.-H. Experimental investigation of the humidity effect on wood discoloration by selected mold and stain fungi for a proper conservation of wooden cultural heritages. J. Wood Sci. 2020, 66, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Karim, M.; Daryaei, M.G.; Torkaman, J.; Oladi, R.; Ghanbary, M.A.T.; Bari, E. In Vivo investigation of chemical alteration in oak wood decayed by Pleurotus ostreatus. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2016, 108, 127–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Witomski, P.; Olek, W.; Bonarski, J.T. Changes in strength of Scots pine wood (Pinus silvestris L.) decayed by brown rot (Coniophora puteana) and white rot (Trametes versicolor). Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 102, 162–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Kataoka, Y.; Kiguchi, M.; Fujiwara, T.; Evans, P.D. The effects of within-species and between-species variation in wood density on the photodegradation depth profiles of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa). J. Wood Sci. 2005, 51, 531–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bao, M.Z.; Rao, F.; He, S.; Bao, Y.J.; Wu, Z.X.; Li, N.; Chen, Y.H. A note on the surface deterioration of scrimber composites exposed to artificial ageing. Coatings 2019, 9, 846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Zhang, Y.H.; Qi, Y.; Huang, Y.X.; Yu, Y.L.; Liang, Y.J.; Yu, W.J. Influence of veneer thickness, mat formation and resin content on some properties of novel poplar scrimbers. Holzforschung 2018, 72, 673–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Evans, P.D.; Gibson, S.K.; Cullis, I.; Liu, C.; Sèbe, G. Photostabilization of wood using low molecular weight phenol formaldehyde resin and hindered amine light stabilizer. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98, 158–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Meng, F.; Liu, R.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, Y.; Yu, Y.; Yu, W. Improvement of the water repellency, dimensional stability, and biological resistance of bamboo-based fiber reinforced composites. Polym. Compos. 2019, 40, 506–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Kumar, A.; Ryparovà, P.; Kasal, B.; Adamopoulos, S.; Hajek, P. Resistance of bamboo scrimber against white-rot and brown-rot fungi. Wood Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 15, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Bakar, E.S.; Hao, J.; Ashaari, Z.; Choo Cheng Yong, A. Durability of phenolic-resin-treated oil palm wood against subterranean termites a white-rot fungus. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2013, 85, 126–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Bao, M.Z.; Huang, X.A.; Zhang, Y.H.; Yu, W.J.; Yu, Y.L. Effect of density on the hygroscopicity and surface characteristics of hybrid poplar compreg. J. Wood Sci. 2016, 62, 441–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Durability of Wood—Part 1: Method for Laboratory Test of Natural Decay Resistance (GB/T13942.1-2009); Standard Administration of China: Beijing, China, 2009; pp. 1–5.
  17. Fibrous Raw Material—Determination of Acid-Insoluble Lignin (GB/T 2677.8-1994); Standard Administration of China: Beijing, China, 1994; pp. 213–215.
  18. Fibrous Raw Material—Determination of Holocellulose (GB/T 2677.10-1995); Standard Administration of China: Beijing, China, 1995; pp. 220–223.
  19. Pulps-Determination of A-Cellulose (GB/T 744-1989); Standard Administration of China: Beijing, China, 1989; pp. 156–158.
  20. Freitag, C.; Kamke, F.A.; Morrell, J.J. Resistance of resin-impregnated VTC processed hybrid-poplar to fungal attack. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2015, 99, 174–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Bari, E.; Schmidt, O.; Oladi, R. A histological investigation of oriental beech wood decayed by Pleurotus ostreatus and Trametes versicolor. For. Pathol. 2015, 45, 349–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Bari, E.; Nazarnezhad, N.; Kazemi, S.M.; Ghanbary, M.A.T.; Mohebby, B.; Schmidt, O.; Clausen, C.A. Comparison between degradation capabilities of the white rot fungi Pleurotus ostreatus and Trametes versicolor in beech wood. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2015, 104, 231–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Bari, E.; Taghiyari, H.R.; Naji, H.R.; Schmidt, O.; Ohno, K.M.; Clausen, C.A.; Bakar, E.S. Assessing the destructive behaviors of two white-rot fungi on beech wood. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2016, 114, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kirk, T.; Highley, T. Quantitative changes in structural components of conifer woods during decay by white-and brown-rot fungi. Phytopathology 1973, 63, 1338–1342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Irbe, I.; Andersons, B.; Chirkova, J.; Kallavus, U.; Andersone, I.; Faix, O. On the changes of pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) chemical composition and ultrastructure during the attack by brown-rot fungi Postia placenta and Coniophora puteana. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2006, 57, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Pandey, K. A study of chemical structure of soft and hardwood and wood polymers by FTIR spectroscopy. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1999, 71, 1969–1975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Pandey, K.; Pitman, A. FTIR studies of the changes in wood chemistry following decay by brown-rot and white-rot fungi. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2003, 52, 151–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Schwarze, F.W.M.R. Wood decay under the microscope. Fungal Biol. Rev. 2007, 21, 133–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Fackler, K.; Schwanninger, M. Polysaccharide degradation and lignin modification during brown rot of spruce wood: A polarised Fourier transform near infrared study. J. Near Infrared Spectrosc. 2010, 18, 403–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Nabil, F.; Zaidon, A.; Anwar, U.; Bakar, E.; Lee, S.; Paridah, M. Impregnation of sesenduk (Endospermum diadenum) wood with phenol formaldehyde and nanoclay admixture: Effect on fungal decay and termites attack. Sains Malays. 2016, 45, 255–262. [Google Scholar]
Polymers 13 03173 g001 550
Figure 1. Photographs of wood reference samples (control) and outdoor wood mats-based engineering composite (OWMEC) samples with different resin contents (8%, 13%, and 18%) after 12 weeks of incubation. (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 1. Photographs of wood reference samples (control) and outdoor wood mats-based engineering composite (OWMEC) samples with different resin contents (8%, 13%, and 18%) after 12 weeks of incubation. (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g001
Polymers 13 03173 g002 550
Figure 2. Photographs of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different densities (0.85, 1.00, and 1.15 g/cm3) after 12 weeks of incubation. (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 2. Photographs of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different densities (0.85, 1.00, and 1.15 g/cm3) after 12 weeks of incubation. (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g002
Polymers 13 03173 g003 550
Figure 3. Mass loss of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different resin contents after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi. For each sample, value bars with the same letter (a, b, c, d) indicate no significant difference at the 0.05 level. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
Figure 3. Mass loss of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different resin contents after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi. For each sample, value bars with the same letter (a, b, c, d) indicate no significant difference at the 0.05 level. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
Polymers 13 03173 g003
Polymers 13 03173 g004 550
Figure 4. Mass loss of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different densities after 12 weeks incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi. For each sample, value bars with the same letter (a, b, c) indicate no significant difference at the 0.05 level. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
Figure 4. Mass loss of wood reference samples (control) and OWMEC samples with different densities after 12 weeks incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi. For each sample, value bars with the same letter (a, b, c) indicate no significant difference at the 0.05 level. Error bars represent the standard deviation.
Polymers 13 03173 g004
Polymers 13 03173 g005 550
Figure 5. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different resin contents: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 5. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different resin contents: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g005
Polymers 13 03173 g006 550
Figure 6. FTIR spectra of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different densities: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 6. FTIR spectra of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different densities: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g006
Polymers 13 03173 g007 550
Figure 7. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different resin contents: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 7. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different resin contents: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g007
Polymers 13 03173 g008 550
Figure 8. XRD patterns of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different densities: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Figure 8. XRD patterns of healthy (control) and decayed OWMEC samples with different densities: (a) T. versicolor decay; (b) G. trabeum decay.
Polymers 13 03173 g008
Polymers 13 03173 g009 550
Figure 9. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of OWMEC with different resin contents after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor fungi. (a–c) 8% resin content; (d–f) 18% resin content. Scale bars: (a,d) 50 μm; (b,e) 40 μm; (c,f) 10 μm.
Figure 9. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of OWMEC with different resin contents after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor fungi. (a–c) 8% resin content; (d–f) 18% resin content. Scale bars: (a,d) 50 μm; (b,e) 40 μm; (c,f) 10 μm.
Polymers 13 03173 g009
Polymers 13 03173 g010 550
Figure 10. SEM images of OWMEC with different densities after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor fungi. (a–c) 0.85 g/cm3; (d–f) 1.15 g/cm3. Scale bars: (a,d) 50 μm; (b,e) 40 μm; (c,f) 10 μm.
Figure 10. SEM images of OWMEC with different densities after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor fungi. (a–c) 0.85 g/cm3; (d–f) 1.15 g/cm3. Scale bars: (a,d) 50 μm; (b,e) 40 μm; (c,f) 10 μm.
Polymers 13 03173 g010
Table
Table 1. Chemical compositions of OWMEC samples with different resin contents before and after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of OWMEC samples with different resin contents before and after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi.
Resin Content (%)FungusHolocellulose (%)α-Cellulose (%)Acid Insoluble Lignin (%)
8-68.47 (0.10) c40.58 (0.17) b25.09 (0.11) a
13-64.19 (0.21) b38.61 (0.54) a28.12 (0.16) b
18-62.64 (0.20) a37.11 (0.13) a31.26 (0.16) c
8T. versicolor63.13 (0.11) c37.32 (0.08) b28.86 (0.10) a
1361.53 (0.16) b37.31 (0.14) b33.41 (0.11) b
1860.46 (0.07) a36.82 (0.10) a34.44 (0.44) c
8G. trabeum60.25 (0.13) a34.98 (0.20) a31.16 (0.24) a
1360.39 (0.11) a36.89 (0.23) b33.75 (0.08) b
1860.11 (0.06) a36.68 (0.10) b35.48 (0.18) c
Values in parenthesis are standard deviations. For each parameter, average values with different letters (a, b, c) in each column indicate a significant difference at the 0.05 level (analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan’s multiple range test).
Table
Table 2. Chemical compositions of OWMEC samples with different densities before and after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi.
Table 2. Chemical compositions of OWMEC samples with different densities before and after 12 weeks of incubation with T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi.
Density (g/cm3)FungusHolocellulose (%)α-Cellulose (%)Acid Insoluble Lignin (%)
0.85-63.78 (0.18) a38.31 (0.13) a29.63 (0.13) c
1.00-64.19 (0.21) a38.61 (0.17) a28.12 (0.16) b
1.15-65.32 (0.11) b39.37 (0.08) b27.31 (0.21) a
0.85T. versicolor60.29 (0.14) a35.92 (0.18) b32.48 (0.18) a
1.0063.55 (0.08) c38.99 (0.16) c32.01 (0.34) a
1.1562.18 (0.16) b35.04 (0.11) a32.64 (0.17) a
0.85G. trabeum59.32 (0.11) a35.56 (0.13) a32.52 (0.16) a
1.0061.24 (0.10) c37.77 (0.13) b32.47 (0.13) a
1.1560.90 (0.92) b37.45 (0.06) b33.18 (0.08) b
Values in parenthesis are standard deviations. For each parameter, average values with different letters (a, b, c) in each column indicate a significant difference at the 0.05 level (analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan’s multiple range test).
Table
Table 3. Crystallinity (Cr) of healthy (control) and decayed OWMECs with different resin contents.
Table 3. Crystallinity (Cr) of healthy (control) and decayed OWMECs with different resin contents.
Resin Content (%)FungusCr (%)
Control-16.34
8.0T. versicolor16.64
13.021.10
18.021.81
8.0G. trabeum18.65
13.018.89
18.021.45
Table
Table 4. Crystallinity (Cr) of healthy (control) and decayed OWMECs with different densities.
Table 4. Crystallinity (Cr) of healthy (control) and decayed OWMECs with different densities.
Density (g/cm3)FungusCr (%)
Control-16.34
0.85T. versicolor19.72
1.0022.81
1.1523.27
0.85G. trabeum19.21
1.0021.78
1.1523.79
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Bao, M.; Li, N.; Bao, Y.; Li, J.; Zhong, H.; Chen, Y.; Yu, Y. Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composite: Influence of Process Parameters on Decay Resistance against Wood-Degrading Fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum. Polymers 2021, 13, 3173. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183173

AMA Style

Bao M, Li N, Bao Y, Li J, Zhong H, Chen Y, Yu Y. Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composite: Influence of Process Parameters on Decay Resistance against Wood-Degrading Fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum. Polymers. 2021; 13(18):3173. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183173

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bao, Minzhen, Neng Li, Yongjie Bao, Jingpeng Li, Hao Zhong, Yuhe Chen, and Yanglun Yu. 2021. "Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composite: Influence of Process Parameters on Decay Resistance against Wood-Degrading Fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum" Polymers 13, no. 18: 3173. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183173

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop