Socio-Economic Variation in Price Minimizing Behaviors: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Price Reduction Behaviors
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Data Source
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Other Covariate Measures
2.4. SES Composite Variable
2.5. Definition of Outcome Measures
2.6. Statistical Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
- Ethics ClearanceThe study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards or research ethics boards of the University of Waterloo (Canada), Roswell Park Cancer Institute (United States), University of Strathclyde (UK), University of Stirling (UK), The Open University (UK), and The Cancer Council Victoria (Australia).
References and Notes
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Characteristic | Overall (n = 7,038) | Canada (n = 1,741) | United States (n = 1,790) | United Kingdom (n = 1,706) | Australia (n = 1,801) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | |||||
CA | 1,741 (24.6) | NA | NA | NA | NA |
US | 1,790 (25.4) | ||||
UK | 1,706 (24.4) | ||||
AU | 1,801 (25.6) | ||||
Sex | |||||
Female | 4,040 (47.6) | 1,004 (46.5) | 1,057 (46.2) | 975 (51.5) | 1,004 (46.4) |
Male | 2,998 (52.4) | 737 (53.5) | 177 (53.8) | 731 (48.5) | 797 (53.6) |
Age at Wave 5 | |||||
18–39 | 2,120 (42.2) | 521 (37.1) | 456 (41.6) | 488 (44.6) | 655 (45.1) |
40–54 | 2,805 (35.3) | 751 (39.1) | 725 (37.4) | 621 (30.6) | 708 (33.9) |
55+ | 2113 (22.5) | 469 (23.5) | 609 (21.0) | 597 (24.7) | 438 (21.0) |
Ethnicity | |||||
White | 6,290 (87.3) | 1,581 (91.0) | 1,487 (76.3) | 1,632 (94.2) | 1,599 (88.2) |
Non-White | 739 (12.7) | 160 (9.0) | 307 (23.7) | 71 (5.8) | 201 (11.8) |
Income | |||||
Low | 2,207 (29.3) | 471 (25.7) | 636 (34.9) | 578 (30.5) | 522 (26.1) |
Moderate | 2,304 (33.1) | 605 (36.0) | 615 (32.5) | 525 (32.3) | 559 (31.4) |
High | 2,028 (30.8) | 536 (31.1) | 438 (26.8) | 452 (29.2) | 602 (36.0) |
No Answer | 499 (6.8) | 129 (7.1) | 101 (5.8) | 151 (8.0) | 118 (6.5) |
Education | |||||
Low | 3,731 (53.2) | 830 (49.0) | 786 (45.8) | 1,000 (56.0) | 1,115 (62.0) |
Moderate | 2,141 (30.7) | 612 (34.5) | 660 (36.5) | 456 (29.1) | 413 (23.0) |
High | 1,141 (15.8) | 295 (16.4) | 341 (17.6) | 234 (14.2) | 271 (14.9) |
No Answer | 25 (0.2) | 4 (0.1) | 3 (0.1) | 16 (0.7) | 2 (0.1) |
SES | |||||
High | 2,334 (33.8) | 689 (39.3) | 669 (36.0) | 481 (31.6) | 495 (28.6) |
Moderate | 2,767 (40.3) | 624 (36.8) | 673 (39.1) | 653 (38.9) | 817 (46.2) |
Low | 1,420 (18.8) | 298 (16.7) | 346 (19.1) | 407 (20.9) | 369 (18.6) |
Unknown | 517 (7.0) | 130 (7.2) | 102 (5.8) | 165 (8.6) | 120 (6.6) |
CPD | |||||
1–10 | 2,123 (31.0) | 550 (31.0) | 539 (32.0) | 530 (32.1) | 504 (29.0) |
11–20 | 3,281 (46.5) | 773 (43.9) | 849 (46.0) | 920 (54.4) | 739 (41.7) |
21–30 | 1,198 (17.0) | 338 (20.6) | 239 (13.9) | 179 (9.7) | 442 (23.5) |
31+ | 427 (5.6) | 79 (4.5) | 160 (8.1) | 75 (3.7) | 113 (5.8) |
Minutes to 1st cig | |||||
>60 | 1,118 (16.7) | 255 (14.9) | 249 (16.3) | 274 (16.5) | 340 (19.1) |
31–60 | 1,315 (19.9) | 332 (19.8) | 321 (18.4) | 340 (22.4) | 322 (19.0) |
6–30 | 3,112 (43.4) | 788 (44.7) | 757 (41.1) | 767 (43.6) | 800 (44.2) |
<5 | 1,443 (20.0) | 359 (20.6) | 448 (24.2) | 312 (17.4) | 324 (17.6) |
Smoking Status | |||||
Daily | 6,653 (94.0) | 1,646 (93.9) | 1,705 (94.5) | 1,624 (94.9) | 1,678 (92.7) |
Weekly | 308 (5.0) | 72 (4.7) | 75 (5.0) | 71 (4.7) | 90 (5.6) |
Monthly | 77 (1.0) | 23 (1.3) | 10 (0.5) | 11 (0.5) | 33 (1.7) |
All by country comparisons are statistically significant at p < 0.05 based on the chi square test. |
Country | Premium Brands | Discount Brands | RYO Brands |
---|---|---|---|
CA | Avanti, Belmont Belvedere, Benson and Hedges, Black Cat, Camel, Cameo, Craven A, Craven M, DuMaurier, Dunhill, Export A, Gauloise, Kool, Lucky Strike, MacDonalds, Marlboro, More, Players, Premium, Rothmans, Sportsman, Supreme, Sweet Caporal, Vantage, Viscount, Winston, Golden Leaf | Baileys, Peter Jackson, Number 7, Legend, Canadian Classic, JPS, Mark Ten, Matinee, Medallion, Podium, Smoking, Maximum, DK’s, Putters, Trad A, All Natural Natives, Discount, Sago, Mohawk, Reserve Rockets, Rollies, Saratoga, Stykes, DH, DailyMail, Canadian, Generic Cigarettes Purchased from Indian Reservation | Belvedere, Cameo, Export A, Matinee, Number 7, Players, Drum, Canadian Classic, Peter Jackson, Honey Time, Captain Black Bleu, Craven A, Extorta |
US | Belair, Benson & Hedges, Camel, Capri, Carlton, Djarum, Eve, Kent, Kool, Lark, Lucky Strike, Marlboro, Merit, More, Nat Sherman, Newport, Pall Mall, Parliament, Rothmans, Salem, Tareyton, True, Vantage, Virginia Slims, Winston, American Spirit | 305’s, Always Save, Natural American Spirit, Austin, Baileys, Basic, Best Value, Bridgeport, Bronco, Bronson, Carnival, Checker, Cherokee, Cheyenne, Class A, Complete, Doral, Drum, Du Maurier, Eagle, Echo, Exact, First Ones, First Choice, 1st Class, GT Ones, Generic, Golden Beach, Gold Coast, GPC, GP’s, Grand, GrandsUSA, Grand Prix, Hats Off, Highway, Hi-val, Jacks, Kings, Kingston, Kingsley, Kentucky’s Best, Liberty, Liggett, Main Street, Malibu, Market, Maxim, Mild 7, Marathon, Maverick, Misty, Monarch, Montclair, Mustang, Niagara, Native, Old Gold, OK Poker, Patriots, Poker, Pyramid, Raleigh, Roger, Sandia, Santa Fe, Seneca, Shield, Sky Dancer, Smoker Friendly, Smokers Choice, Smokin Joes, Sonoma, Sundance, Tahoe, Tourney, Tucson, USA, USA Gold, Viceroy, Wave, Westport, Winchester, Wild Horse, Yours | Bugler, Camel, Drum, Gambler, Golden Harvest, Kite, McClintock, Midnight Special, Roll Rich, Stokers, Top, Zig Zag |
UK | Benson & Hedges, Berkley, Camel, Consulate, Capstan, Club, Drum, Dunhill, Davidoff, Marlboro, More, Park Drive Plain, Piccadilly, Regal, Rothmans, Silk Cut, Superkings, Lucky Strike, Raffles, Peter Stuyvesant, Players, Woodbine, American Spirit, Imperial | Dorchester, Embassy, JPS, Lambert & Butler, Mayfair, Richmond, Senior Service, Sovereign, Sterling, Balmoral, Basic, Craven A, Redband, Windsor, Gold Coast, Select, Fortuna, Goldmark, John Players, L&M, Royals | Blue Ridge, Golden Virginia, Old Holborn, Turner, Domingo, Hamlet, Bayside Gold, Amber Leaf, Cutters Choice, Drum, Gauloises, Samson, Silver Strand, St. Bruno, Café Crème, Players, Gold Leaf |
AU | Alpine, Benson & Hedges, Camel, Dunhill, Escort, Kool, Marlboro, More, Peter Jackson, Peter Stuyvesant, Rothmans, Vogue, Winfield, Kent, Superkings | Brandon, Cambridge, Choice, Holiday, Longbeach, Double Happiness, Gudang Garam, Stradbroke, Horizon, Raison, Super Lights | Capstan, Champion, Dr. Pat Virginia, Drum, Marlboro, Port Royal, Stockmans, White Ox, Winfield, Old Holborn, Bank Aromatic, Havelock, Longbeach |
Weighted Percentage of Reported Use | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Purchasing Behavior | All | CA | US | UK | AU |
Purchase from Low/Untaxed Sources | |||||
No | 91.7 | 89.9 | 94.6 | 83.2 | 98.7 |
Yes | 8.3 | 10.1 | 5.4 | 16.8 | 1.3 |
Specific Low/Untaxed Sources: | |||||
Military Commissary, Duty-free * | 1.9 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 5.8 | 0.5 |
Indian Reservation | 2.7 | 7.9 | 3.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Outside State/Country | 1.9 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 7.2 | 0.2 |
By Internet or Telephone * | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.0 |
Friend, Relative, Someone else * | 1.6 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 3.6 | 0.7 |
Use Discount Brand Cigarettes | |||||
Premium | 50.7 | 49.0 | 69.5 | 32.7 | 50.6 |
Discount | 35.9 | 43.5 | 27.8 | 38.3 | 34.4 |
RYO | 13.5 | 7.5 | 2.6 | 29.0 | 15.0 |
Purchase from Cartons | |||||
No | 71.3 | 71.0 | 58.8 | 75.1 | 82.8 |
Yes | 28.7 | 29.0 | 41.2 | 24.9 | 17.2 |
Any Price or Tax Avoidance ** | |||||
No | 37.2 | 36.9 | 45.2 | 23.1 | 42.9 |
Yes | 62.8 | 63.1 | 54.8 | 76.9 | 57.1 |
Low/untaxed (n = 6,543) | discount/RYO (n = 6,400) | cartons (n = 5,669) | “Any Use” (n = 6,374) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | N | OR (95% CI) | N | OR (95% CI) | N | OR (95% CI) | N | OR (95% CI) |
SES | ||||||||
High | 2,346 | 1.00 | 2,307 | 1.00 | 2101 | 1.00 | 2301 | 1.00 |
Moderate | 2,780 | 0.99 (0.81–1.21) | 2,719 | 1.36 (1.21–1.53) | 2414 | 0.89 (0.78–1.03) | 2712 | 1.15 (1.02–1.30) |
Low | 1,417 | 0.74 (0.57–0.96) | 1,374 | 1.85 (1.59–2.15) | 1154 | 0.57 (0.47–0.68) | 1361 | 1.25 (1.07–1.45) |
Country | ||||||||
CA | 1,620 | 1.00 | 1,542 | 1.00 | 1472 | 1.00 | 1534 | 1.00 |
US | 1,698 | 0.58 (0.44–0.75) | 1,666 | 0.41 (0.35–0.48) | 1650 | 2.01 (1.71–2.37) | 1665 | 0.73 (0.63–0.85) |
UK | 1,540 | 1.92 (1.55–2.38) | 1,520 | 1.97 (1.69–2.28) | 1127 | 0.88 (0.73–1.06) | 1508 | 2.03 (1.73–2.39) |
AU | 1,685 | 0.13 (0.08–0.20) | 1,672 | 0.93 (0.80–1.07) | 1420 | 0.47 (0.39–0.57) | 1667 | 0.76 (0.66–0.88) |
Age | ||||||||
18–39 | 2,006 | 1.00 | 1,978 | 1.00 | 1765 | 1.00 | 1972 | 1.00 |
40–54 | 2,635 | 1.65 (1.32–2.05) | 2,589 | 1.32 (1.17–1.49) | 2261 | 1.66 (1.43–1.92) | 2576 | 1.52 (1.35–1.71) |
55+ | 1,902 | 2.24 (1.77–2.83) | 1,833 | 1.42 (1.24–1.64) | 1643 | 3.42 (2.90–4.03) | 1826 | 2.39 (2.05–2.78) |
Sex | ||||||||
Female | 3,740 | 1.00 | 3,658 | 1.00 | 3380 | 1.00 | 3651 | 1.00 |
Male | 2,803 | 0.96 (0.80–1.14) | 2,742 | 0.75 (0.68–0.84) | 2289 | 0.69 (0.61–0.78) | 2723 | 0.69 (0.62–0.77) |
Minority | ||||||||
No | 5,858 | 1.00 | 5,727 | 1.00 | 5038 | 1.00 | 5703 | 1.00 |
Yes | 685 | 0.91 (0.65–1.26) | 673 | 0.73 (0.62–0.86) | 631 | 0.69 (0.56–0.84) | 671 | 0.68 (0.58–0.80) |
CPD | ||||||||
1–10 | 1,981 | 1.00 | 1,932 | 1.00 | 1744 | 1.00 | 1924 | 1.00 |
11–20 | 3,069 | 1.30 (1.04–1.62) | 3,011 | 1.41 (1.25–1.59) | 2641 | 2.20 (1.88–2.58) | 3002 | 1.75 (1.55–1.98) |
21–30 | 1,103 | 1.64 (1.24–2.17) | 1,077 | 1.40 (1.19–1.65) | 953 | 3.50 (2.87–4.26) | 1071 | 2.04 (1.72–2.04) |
31+ | 390 | 1.20 (0.77–1.87) | 380 | 2.22 (1.73–2.84) | 331 | 3.36 (2.54–4.45) | 377 | 2.93 (2.23–3.84) |
Total Sample (n = 5,939) mean (SD) | Excluding UK (n = 4,744) ** mean (SD) | CA (n = 1,533) mean (SD) | US (n = 1,726) mean (SD) | UK (n = 1,195) mean (SD) | AU (n = 1,485) mean (SD) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | ||||||
CA | 0.28 (0.082) | |||||
US | 0.18 (0.068) | |||||
UK | 0.43 (0.105) | |||||
AU | 0.31 (0.044) | |||||
Low/Untaxed | ||||||
Full | 0.30 (0.113) | 0.26 (0.084) | 0.30 (0.063) | 0.18 (0.067) | 0.46 (0.065) | 0.31 (0.041) |
Low/No | 0.16 (0.085) | 0.13 (0.069) | 0.12 (0.069) | 0.13 (0.052) | 0.21 (0.089) | 0.19 (0.113) |
Discount Use | ||||||
Premium Brand | 0.29 (0.113) | 0.27 (0.086) | 0.32 (0.064) | 0.19 (0.059) | 0.44 (0.124) | 0.33 (0.043) |
Discount Brand | 0.28 (0.117) | 0.23 (0.082) | 0.25 (0.071) | 0.14 (0.059) | 0.42 (0.081) | 0.28 (0.031) |
Carton Use | ||||||
No | 0.32 (0.105) | 0.28 (0.075) | 0.31 (0.066) | 0.20 (0.065) | 0.46 (0.058) | 0.31 (0.040) |
Yes | 0.21 (0.110) | 0.19 (0.087) | 0.23 (0.092) | 0.14 (0.049) | 0.32 (0.143) | 0.28 (0.054) |
Any Use | ||||||
None | 0.32 (0.104) | 0.29 (0.076) | 0.34 (0.050) | 0.21 (0.056) | 0.50 (0.052) | 0.33 (0.034) |
Any (1 + Sources) | 0.27 (0.117) | 0.22 (0.083) | 0.26 (0.072) | 0.15 (0.054) | 0.40 (0.107) | 0.28 (0.039) |
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Licht, A.S.; Hyland, A.J.; O’Connor, R.J.; Chaloupka, F.J.; Borland, R.; Fong, G.T.; Nargis, N.; Cummings, K.M. Socio-Economic Variation in Price Minimizing Behaviors: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 234-252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8010234
Licht AS, Hyland AJ, O’Connor RJ, Chaloupka FJ, Borland R, Fong GT, Nargis N, Cummings KM. Socio-Economic Variation in Price Minimizing Behaviors: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011; 8(1):234-252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8010234
Chicago/Turabian StyleLicht, Andrea S., Andrew J. Hyland, Richard J. O’Connor, Frank J. Chaloupka, Ron Borland, Geoffrey T. Fong, Nigar Nargis, and K. Michael Cummings. 2011. "Socio-Economic Variation in Price Minimizing Behaviors: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8, no. 1: 234-252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8010234