Predictors for Anxiety and Stress in Long COVID: A Study in the Brazilian Population
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | N | Mean | SD | Anxiety | Stress | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | p-Value | Mean | SD | p-Value | ||||
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 2987 | 2.94 | 3.85 | 0.0000 | 4.57 | 4.80 | 0.0000 | ||
Female | 1251 | 4.25 | 4.46 | 6.47 | 5.28 | ||||
Age | |||||||||
Occupation | 35.75 | 12.80 | |||||||
Employee | 1443 | 3.43 | 4.20 | 0.0000 | 5.34 | 5.03 | 0.0000 | ||
Unemployed/retired | 385 | 3.85 | 4.37 | 5.28 | 5.20 | ||||
Income | |||||||||
>1 Minimum wage (SM) | 675 | 4.51 | 4.47 | 0.0000 | 6.69 | 5.32 | 0.0000 | ||
1 SM | 792 | 4.11 | 4.54 | 5.75 | 5.23 | ||||
Race | |||||||||
White/yellow/indigenous | 1410 | 3.85 | 4.31 | 0.9531 | 6.13 | 5.19 | 0.0219 | ||
Black | 296 | 3.79 | 4.24 | 5.77 | 5.22 | ||||
Marital status | |||||||||
Married or living as married | 1017 | 3.15 | 3.98 | 0.0000 | 4.91 | 4.85 | 0.0000 | ||
Single | 1949 | 4.27 | 4.44 | 6.49 | 5.32 | ||||
Education | |||||||||
Completed higher education (Graduation) | 679 | 3.66 | 4.14 | 0.0000 | 5.59 | 5.10 | 0.0000 | ||
<Completed elementary school | 164 | 2.96 | 4.14 | 4.04 | 4.92 | ||||
CIM | |||||||||
Appropriate weight | 1325 | 3.83 | 4.23 | 0.0025 | 6.13 | 5.29 | 0.0017 | ||
Low weight | 111 | 4.78 | 4.82 | 6.99 | 5.45 | ||||
Number of COVID-19 diagnoses | |||||||||
1 | 2072 | 3.66 | 4.23 | 0.0001 | 5.65 | 5.18 | 0.0001 | ||
2 | 850 | 4.00 | 4.23 | 6.19 | 5.15 | ||||
Clinical picture | |||||||||
Level | 2823 | 3.72 | 4.24 | 0.0000 | 5.84 | 5.22 | 0.0134 | ||
Moderate/severe/critical | 317 | 5.15 | 4.87 | 6.48 | 5.18 | ||||
Specialized service | |||||||||
Basic care | 642 | 3.87 | 4.33 | 0.0259 | 5.80 | 5.30 | 0.0112 | ||
Hospital care | 753 | 4.18 | 4.46 | 6.37 | 5.27 | ||||
Diagnosis of COVID-19 before being vaccinated | |||||||||
No | 1279 | 3.58 | 4.17 | 0.0040 | 5.76 | 5.14 | 0.2271 | ||
Yes | 1792 | 4.05 | 4.44 | 6.01 | 5.27 | ||||
Chronic illnesses | |||||||||
No | 2623 | 3.68 | 4.28 | 0.0000 | 5.70 | 5.15 | 0.0000 | ||
Yes | 391 | 4.58 | 4.35 | 6.83 | 5.41 | ||||
Physical symptoms | |||||||||
No | 1375 | 2.78 | 3.67 | 0.0000 | 4.56 | 4.67 | 0.0000 | ||
Yes | 1772 | 4.68 | 4.61 | 6.92 | 5.38 | ||||
Hospital stay | |||||||||
No | 3036 | 3.78 | 4.26 | 0.0000 | 5.85 | 5.16 | 0.0504 | ||
Yes | 105 | 5.98 | 5.38 | 7.25 | 6.30 | ||||
Prolonged symptoms after the acute phase of infection | |||||||||
No | 1638 | 2.98 | 3.76 | 0.0000 | 4.89 | 4.81 | 0.0000 | ||
Yes | 1510 | 4.78 | 4.67 | 6.96 | 5.41 |
Category | Estimate | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Female | 0.2357 | 0.0000 |
Age | −0.0134 | 0.0000 |
Diagnosis of chronic diseases | 0.1437 | 0.0250 |
Physical symptoms | 0.2181 | 0.0001 |
Hospitalization | 0.2449 | 0.0401 |
Residual symptoms | 0.2603 | 0.0000 |
Moderate or severe infection | 0.2020 | 0.0054 |
Category | Estimate | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Female | 0.1592 | 0.0000 |
Age | −0.0091 | 0.0000 |
Chronic illness | 0.1015 | 0.0189 |
Physical symptoms | 0.1313 | 0.0004 |
Residual symptoms | 0.1228 | 0.0006 |
Home care | 0.0769 | 0.0407 |
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de Macêdo Rocha, D.; Pedroso, A.O.; Sousa, L.R.M.; Gir, E.; Reis, R.K. Predictors for Anxiety and Stress in Long COVID: A Study in the Brazilian Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020258
de Macêdo Rocha D, Pedroso AO, Sousa LRM, Gir E, Reis RK. Predictors for Anxiety and Stress in Long COVID: A Study in the Brazilian Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(2):258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020258
Chicago/Turabian Stylede Macêdo Rocha, Daniel, Andrey Oeiras Pedroso, Laelson Rochelle Milanês Sousa, Elucir Gir, and Renata Karina Reis. 2025. "Predictors for Anxiety and Stress in Long COVID: A Study in the Brazilian Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 2: 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020258
APA Stylede Macêdo Rocha, D., Pedroso, A. O., Sousa, L. R. M., Gir, E., & Reis, R. K. (2025). Predictors for Anxiety and Stress in Long COVID: A Study in the Brazilian Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(2), 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020258