Food Insecurity and Blood Pressure in a Multiethnic Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Instruments and Measures
2.4. Data Reduction and Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Leonard, T.; Hughes, A.E.; Donegan, C.; Santillan, A.; Pruitt, S.L. Overlapping geographic clusters of food security and health: Where do social determinants and health outcomes converge in the US? SSM-Popul. Health 2018, 5, 160–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Murthy, V.H. Food insecurity: A public health issue. Public Health Rep. (1974-) 2016, 131, 655–657. [Google Scholar]
- Pooler, J.A.; Hartline-Grafton, H.; DeBor, M.; Sudore, R.L.; Seligman, H.K. Food insecurity: A key social determinant of health for older adults. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2019, 67, 421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shim, R.S.; Compton, M.T. The social determinants of mental health: Psychiatrists’ roles in addressing discrimination and food insecurity. Focus 2020, 18, 25–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pruitt, S.L.; Leonard, T.; Xuan, L.; Amory, R.; Higashi, R.T.; Nguyen, O.K.; Pezzia, C.; Swales, S. Who is food insecure? Implications for targeted recruitment and outreach, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2010. Prev. Chronic. Dis. 2016, 13, E143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Coleman-Jensen, A.; Rabbitt, M.P.; Gregory, C.A.; Singh, A. Household Food Security in the United States in 2021. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. ERR-309 2022, 37. Available online: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/104656/err-309.pdf (accessed on 10 April 2023).
- Stupplebeen, D.A.; Quensell, M.; Peltzer, N.K.; Pirkle, C.M. Food Insecurity in Hawaiʻi Using a Population-Based Sample: A Data Brief; University of Hawaiʻi and Mānoa: Honolulu, HI, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Long, C.R.; Rowland, B.; McElfish, P.A.; Ayers, B.L.; Narcisse, M.R. Food security status of Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in the US: Analysis of a national survey. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav 2020, 52, 788–795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hawaii State Department of Health, Hawaii Health Data Warehouse, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. [Food Security—Received Free Food, 2018–2020]. Published 2 March 2023. Available online: https://hhdw.org/report/query/result/brfss/FreeFood12Mo/FreeFood12MoCrude11_.html (accessed on 7 March 2023).
- Audit Quality Control & Research Office. Databook. State of Hawaii, Department of Human Services. 2014. Available online: https://humanservices.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/DHS-Databook_Jan2014_FINAL.pdf (accessed on 10 April 2023).
- Chihara, I.; Hayes, D.K.; Chock, L.R.; Fuddy, L.J.; Rosenberg, D.L.; Handler, A.S. Relationship between gestational weight gain and birthweight among clients enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), Hawaii, 2003–2005. Matern. Child Health J. 2014, 18, 1123–1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mook, K.; Laraia, B.A.; Oddo, V.M.; Jones-Smith, J.C. Food security status and barriers to fruit and vegetable consumption in two economically deprived communities of Oakland, California, 2013–2014. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2016, 13, E21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Litton, M.M.; Beavers, A.W. The relationship between food security status and fruit and vegetable intake during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutrients 2021, 13, 712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tomayko, E.J.; Mosso, K.L.; Cronin, K.A.; Carmichael, L.; Kim, K.; Parker, T.; Yaroch, A.L.; Adams, A.K. Household food insecurity and dietary patterns in rural and urban American Indian families with young children. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- To, Q.G.; Frongillo, E.A.; Gallegos, D.; Moore, J.B. Household food insecurity is associated with less physical activity among children and adults in the U.S. population. J. Nutr. 2014, 144, 1797–1802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vazquez, J.T.; Feng, S.N.; Orr, C.J.; Berkowitz, S.A. Food insecurity and cardiometabolic conditions: A review of recent research. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2021, 10, 243–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagata, J.M.; Palar, K.; Gooding, H.C.; Garber, A.K.; Bibbins-Domingo, K.; Weiser, S.D. Food insecurity and chronic disease in US young adults: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolesecent to Adult Health. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2019, 34, 2756–2762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seligman, H.K.; Davis, T.C.; Schillinger, D.; Wolf, M.S. Food insecurity is associated with hypoglycemia and poor diabetes self-management in a low-income sample with diabetes. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 2010, 21, 1227–1233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Razon, N.; Hessler, D.; Bibbins-Domingo, K.; Gottlieb, L. How hypertension guidelines address social determinants of health: A systematic scoping review. Med. Care 2021, 59, 1122–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Becker, N.V.; Scott, J.W.; Moniz, M.H.; Carlton, E.F.; Ayanian, J.Z. Association of chronic disease with patient financial outcomes among commercially insured adults. JAMA Intern. Med. 2022, 182, 1044–1051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Helms, A. Health Inequity in the Context of Cardiovascular Disease and COVID-19: A Scoping Review. 2021. Available online: https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/honors_theses/c534fx69b (accessed on 15 February 2023).
- Parekh, T.; Xue, H.; Cheskin, L.J.; Cuellar, A.E. Food insecurity and housing instability as determinants of cardiovascular health outcomes: A systematic review. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2022, 32, 1590–1608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liao, Y.; Bang, D.; Cosgrove, S.; Dulin, R.; Harris, Z.; Taylor, A.; White, S.; Yatabe, G.; Liburd, L.; Giles, W. Surveillance of health status in minority communities—Racial And Ethnic Approaches To Community Health Across The U.S. (REACH U.S.) risk factor survey, United States, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. (Wash. D.C. 2002) 2011, 60, 1–44. [Google Scholar]
- Nguyen, D.-H.; Salvail, F. The Hawaii Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System: 2015 Results; Hawaii State Department of Health: Honolulu, HI, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Novotny, R.; Davis, J.; Butel, J.; Boushey, C.J.; Fialkowski, M.K.; Nigg, C.R.; Braun, K.L.; Leon Guerrero, R.T.; Coleman, P.; Bersamin, A.; et al. Effect of the Children’s Healthy Living Program on Young Child Overweight, Obesity, and Acanthosis Nigricans in the US-Affiliated Pacific Region: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw. Open. 2018, 1, e183896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martin, L.M.; Leff, M.; Calonge, N.; Garrett, C.; Nelson, D.E. Validation of self-reported chronic conditions and health services in a managed care population. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2000, 18, 215–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Okura, Y.; Urban, L.H.; Mahoney, D.W.; Jacobsen, S.J.; Rodeheffer, R.J. Agreement between self-report questionnaires and medical record data was substantial for diabetes, hypertension, myocardial infarction and stroke but not for heart failure. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2004, 57, 1096–1103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, C.L.; Marshall, A.L.; Sjöström, M.; Bauman, A.E.; Booth, M.L.; Ainsworth, B.E.; Pratt, M.; Ekelund, U.; Yngve, A.; Sallis, J.F.; et al. International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2003, 35, 1381–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Thompson, F.E.; Midthune, D.; Kahle, L.; Dodd, K.W. Development and evaluation of the National Cancer Institute’s Dietary Screener Questionnaire scoring algorithms. J. Nutr. 2017, 147, 1226–1233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- George, S.M.; Thompson, F.E.; Midthune, D.; Subar, A.F.; Berrigan, D.; Schatzkin, A.; Potischman, N. Strength of the relationships between three self-reported dietary intake instruments and serum carotenoids: The Observing Energy And Protein Nutrition (OPEN) study. Public Health Nutr. 2012, 15, 1000–1007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yaroch, A.L.; Tooze, J.; Thompson, F.E.; Blanck, H.M.; Thompson, O.M.; Colón-Ramos, U.; Shaikh, A.R.; Mcnutt, S.; Nebeling, L.C. Evaluation of three short dietary instruments to assess fruit and vegetable intake: The National Cancer Institute’s Food Attitudes and Behaviors Survey. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2012, 112, 1570–1577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households in 2020. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. 2021. Available online: https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/2021-economic-well-being-of-us-households-in-2020-description-of-the-survey.htm (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Novotny, R.; Li, F.; Wilkens, L.; Fialkowski, M.; Fleming, T.; Coleman, P.; Guerrero, R.L.; Bersamin, A.; Deenik, J. Economic influences on child growth status, from the Children’s Healthy Living Program in the US-affiliated Pacific region. In ADBI Working Paper 698; Asian Development Bank Institute: Tokyo, Japan, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Hamilton, W.L.; Cook, J.T.; Thompson, W.W.; Buron, L.F.; Edward, A.; Frongillo, J.; Olson, C.M.; Wehler, C.A. Household Food Security in the United States in 1995: Technical Report of the Food Security Measurement Project. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1997. Available online: https://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/TECH_RPT.PDF (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Derrickson, J.P.; Fisher, A.G.; Anderson, J.E.L. The Core Food Security Module scale measure is valid and reliable when used with Asians and Pacific Islanders. J. Nutr. 2000, 130, 2666–2674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Long, C.R.; Narcisse, M.R.; Bailey, M.M.; Rowland, B.; English, E.; McElfish, P.A. Food insecurity and chronic diseases among Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in the Us: Results of a population-based survey. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2022, 17, 53–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berrington De Gonzalez, A.; Hartge, P.; Cerhan, J.R.; Flint, A.J.; Hannan, L.; Macinnis, R.J.; Moore, S.C.; Tobias, G.S.; Anton-Culver, H.; Freeman, L.B. Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million White adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363, 2211–2219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015, 8th Edition. Available online: https://health.gov/our-work/food-nutrition/previous-dietary-guidelines/2015 (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Mendy, V.L.; Vargas, R.; Cannon-Smith, G.; Payton, M.; Enkhmaa, B.; Zhang, L. Food insecurity and cardiovascular disease risk factors among Mississippi adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Leung, C.; Tester, J.; Laraia, B. Household food insecurity and ideal cardiovascular health factors in US adults. JAMA Intern. Med. 2017, 177, 730–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Penne, T.; Goedemé, T. Can low-income households afford a healthy diet? Insufficient income as a driver of food insecurity in Europe. Food Policy 2021, 99, 101978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darmon, N.; Drewnowski, A. Contribution of food prices and diet cost to socioeconomic disparities in diet quality and health: A systematic review and analysis. Nutr. Rev. 2015, 73, 643–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hermansen, K. Diet, blood pressure and hypertension. Br. J. Nutr. 2000, 83, S113–S119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Swinburn, B.A.; Caterson, I.; Seidell, J.C.; James, W.P.T. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of excess weight gain and obesity. Public Health Nutr. 2004, 7, 123–146. [Google Scholar]
- Hanson, K.L.; Connor, L.M. Food insecurity and dietary quality in US adults and children: A systematic review. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 100, 684–692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, Y.; Eicher-Miller, H.A. Food insecurity and cardiovascular disease risk. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 2021, 23, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beltrán, S.; Pharel, M.; Montgomery, C.T.; Lopez-Hinojosa, I.J.; Arenas, D.J.; Delisser, H.M. Food insecurity and hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0241628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spruill, T.M. Chronic psychosocial stress and hypertension. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 2010, 12, 10–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hicken, M.T.; Lee, H.; Morenoff, J.; House, J.S.; Williams, D.R. Racial/ethnic disparities in hypertension prevalence: Reconsidering the role of chronic stress. Am. J. Public Health 2014, 104, 117–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bergmann, N.; Gyntelberg, F.; Faber, J. The appraisal of chronic stress and the development of the metabolic syndrome: A systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Endocr. Connect. 2014, 3, R55–R80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pourmotabbed, A.; Moradi, S.; Babaei, A.; Ghavami, A.; Mohammadi, H.; Jalili, C.; Symonds, M.E.; Miraghajani, M. Food insecurity and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2020, 23, 1778–1790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Knowles, M.; Rabinowich, J.; Ettinger De Cuba, S.; Cutts, D.B.; Chilton, M. “Do you wanna breathe or eat?”: Parent perspectives on child health consequences of food insecurity, trade-offs, and toxic stress. Matern. Child Health J. 2016, 20, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jessiman-Perreault, G.; Mcintyre, L. The household food insecurity gradient and potential reductions in adverse population mental health outcomes in Canadian adults. SSM Popul. Health 2017, 3, 464–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, M.S.; Maddocks, E.; Chen, Y.; Gilman, S.E.; Colman, I. Food insecurity and mental illness: Disproportionate impacts in the context of perceived stress and social isolation. Public Health 2016, 132, 86–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolfson, J.A.; Garcia, T.; Leung, C.W. Food insecurity is associated with depression, anxiety, and stress: Evidence from the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Health Equity 2021, 5, 64–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leung, C.W.; Zhou, M.S. Household food insecurity and the association with cumulative biological risk among lower-income adults: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2007–2010. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trapp, C.M.; Burke, G.; Gorin, A.A.; Wiley, J.F.; Hernandez, D.; Crowell, R.E.; Grant, A.; Beaulieu, A.; Cloutier, M.M. The relationship between dietary patterns, body mass index percentile, and household food security in young urban children. Child Obes 2015, 11, 148–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Higashi, R.T.; Sood, A.; Conrado, A.B.; Shahan, K.L.; Leonard, T.; Pruitt, S.L. Experiences of increased food insecurity, economic and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic among Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-enrolled food pantry clients. Public Health Nutr. 2022, 25, 1027–1037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Characteristics | N (%) or M ± SD |
---|---|
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 122.63 ± 18.45 |
Age (years) | 38.83 ± 9.99 |
Sex | |
Male | 59 (39.86%) |
Female | 88 (59.46%) |
Other | 1 (0.68%) |
Household size | 8.04 ± 0.20 |
Ethnicity | |
NHPI | 94 (63.09%) |
Asian | 23 (15.44%) |
White | 30 (20.13%) |
Other | 2 (1.34%) |
Marital status | |
Single | 46 (30.87%) |
Married | 91 (61.07%) |
Interrupted marital status | 12 (8.05%) |
Employment status | |
Employed | 99 (66.44%) |
Unemployed | 28 (18.79%) |
Retired | 4 (2.68%) |
Homemaker | 17 (11.41%) |
Student | 1 (0.67%) |
Education level | |
Less than high school education | 3 (2.01%) |
High school education | 59 (39.60%) |
Some college education | 39 (26.17%) |
College graduate | 48 (32.21%) |
Stress (1–5) | 3.32 ± 1.36 |
BMI (kg/m²) | 32.24 ± 9.30 |
Physical activity category | |
High | 43 (28.86%) |
Moderate | 12 (8.05%) |
Low | 94 (63.09%) |
Sedentary time (min/week) | 2127.34 ± 1598.87 |
Diet components | |
Fruit (cups) | 0.89 ± 0.44 |
Vegetables (cups) | 1.50 ± 0.38 |
Fiber (grams) | 15.70 ± 3.47 |
Whole Grains (ounces) | 0.73 ± 0.34 |
Dairy (cups) | 1.49 ± 0.61 |
Added sugar from sweetened beverages (tsp) | 9.51 ± 9.42 |
Food insecurity | 44 (34.92%) |
Financial instability | 37 (29.37%) |
Sex | Age | Edu | Stress | BMI | Smoke | PA | STime | Fruit | Vege | Fiber | WG | Dairy | SSB | FoodIn | FinIn | HHS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SBP | −0.26 * | 0.09 | −0.19 * | 0.10 | 0.39 * | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.05 | −0.21 * | −0.06 | −0.20 * | −0.19 * | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.25 * | 0.10 | 0.09 |
Sex | - | −0.21 * | 0.16 | 0.19 * | 0.06 | −0.14 | −0.32 * | 0.03 | 0.14 | −0.25 * | −0.38 * | −0.08 | −0.35 * | −0.29 * | 0.01 | −0.15 | −0.00 |
Age | - | 0.14 | −0.15 | −0.14 | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.11 | 0.18 * | 0.07 | 0.04 | −0.13 | −0.16 | −0.12 | 0.10 | |
Education level | - | 0.11 | −0.28 * | −0.35 * | −0.17 * | 0.04 | 0.32 * | 0.20 * | 0.29 * | 0.25 * | 0.11 | −0.22 * | −0.34 * | 0.22 * | −0.16 | ||
Stress | - | 0.09 | 0.06 | −0.15 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.00 | −0.05 | −0.13 | 0.14 | −0.12 | −0.08 | |||
BMI | - | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.04 | −0.21 * | −0.18 * | −0.37 * | −0.19 * | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.25 * | 0.29 * | 0.17 | ||||
Ever smoker | - | −0.06 | 0.24 * | −0.12 | −0.19 * | −0.16 | −0.20 * | −0.02 | 0.22 * | 0.41 * | −0.18 * | 0.26 * | |||||
Physical activity | - | −0.05 | −0.06 | 0.08 | 0.08 | −0.01 | 0.14 | 0.11 | −0.09 | −0.20 * | 0.10 | ||||||
Sedentary time (min/week) | - | 0.10 | −0.13 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.07 | 0.23 * | −0.01 | −0.09 | 0.23 * | |||||||
Fruit (cups) | - | 0.42 * | 0.39 * | 0.42 * | 0.33 * | 0.33 * | −0.15 | −0.21 | −0.16 | ||||||||
Vegetables (cups) | - | 0.63 * | 0.36 * | 0.19 * | 0.06 | −0.21 * | −0.38 * | −0.13 | |||||||||
Fiber (grams) | - | 0.65 * | 0.15 | −0.31 * | −0.34 * | −0.35 * | −0.23 * | ||||||||||
Whole grains (ounces) | - | 0.28 * | 0.06 | −0.29 * | −0.07 | −0.16 | |||||||||||
Dairy (cups) | - | 0.37 * | −0.08 | 0.02 | −0.06 | ||||||||||||
Sugar-sweetened beverages (tsp) | - | 0.30 * | 0.29 * | 0.26 * | |||||||||||||
Food insecurity | - | 0.37 * | 0.20 | ||||||||||||||
Financial instability | - | 0.22 * | |||||||||||||||
Household size | - |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | B | SE | p-Value | B | SE | p-Value | B | SE | p-Value |
Sex (male) | 9.89 | 2.99 | 0.001 | 11.58 | 3.48 | 0.001 | 10.15 | 3.52 | 0.005 |
Age (yrs) | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.25 | 0.17 | 0.14 |
Ethnicity | |||||||||
NHPI | −0.95 | 4.44 | 0.83 | 0.56 | 4.40 | 0.90 | −0.06 | 4.36 | 0.99 |
Asian | 4.71 | 4.90 | 0.34 | 5.57 | 4.84 | 0.25 | 4.65 | 4.80 | 0.33 |
Other | 20.36 | 15.89 | 0.21 | 26.77 | 15.69 | 0.09 | 26.89 | 15.50 | 0.09 |
Marital Status | |||||||||
Single | 1.74 | 5.24 | 0.74 | 1.95 | 5.19 | 0.71 | 1.07 | 5.15 | 0.84 |
Married | −2.70 | 4.89 | 0.58 | −1.94 | 4.83 | 0.69 | −1.91 | 4.79 | 0.69 |
Education Level | −1.73 | 1.63 | 0.29 | −0.71 | 1.68 | 0.67 | 0.27 | 1.72 | 0.87 |
Stress | 1.05 | 1.08 | 0.34 | 1.33 | 1.07 | 0.22 | 0.95 | 1.11 | 0.39 |
BMI | 0.80 | 0.16 | <0.001 | 0.66 | 0.17 | <0.001 | 0.63 | 0.17 | <0.001 |
Physical Activity | −0.30 | 0.17 | <0.001 | −1.23 | 2.58 | 0.64 | |||
Foods | |||||||||
Fruit (cups) | −2.27 | 3.52 | 0.52 | −4.12 | 3.61 | 0.26 | |||
Fiber (grams) | −0.57 | 0.60 | 0.34 | −0.28 | 0.61 | 0.45 | |||
Whole Grains (ounces) | −5.11 | 5.28 | 0.34 | −4.05 | 5.34 | 0.45 | |||
Financial Instability | 0.55 | 3.47 | 0.88 | ||||||
Food Insecurity | 7.09 | 3.57 | 0.05 | ||||||
R2 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.37 | ||||||
F Change | 4.32 | 2.67 | |||||||
p-value | 0.007 | 0.031 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ing, C.T.; Clemens, B.; Ahn, H.J.; Kaholokula, J.K.; Hovmand, P.S.; Seto, T.B.; Novotny, R. Food Insecurity and Blood Pressure in a Multiethnic Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136242
Ing CT, Clemens B, Ahn HJ, Kaholokula JK, Hovmand PS, Seto TB, Novotny R. Food Insecurity and Blood Pressure in a Multiethnic Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(13):6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136242
Chicago/Turabian StyleIng, Claire Townsend, Brettany Clemens, Hyeong Jun Ahn, Joseph Keawe‘aimoku Kaholokula, Peter S. Hovmand, Todd B. Seto, and Rachel Novotny. 2023. "Food Insecurity and Blood Pressure in a Multiethnic Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 13: 6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136242