Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Extraction
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Included Studies
3.2. Associations between TSSM and Depression Risk
3.3. Subgroup and Sensitivity Analyses
3.4. Publication Bias
3.5. Dose–Response Association between TSSM and Risk of Depression
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Design | Main Study Objective | Country; Sample Size (Female) | Age (Years) | Measure of Time Spent on Social Media | Depression Measure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Banjanin et al. 2015 | CS | Investigated the potential relationship between internet addiction and depression in adolescents. | Serbia; 336 (66%) | 18 | Self-report daily time spent on social networking; Response: self-administered open answer | CESD |
Boers et al. 2019 | LS | Repeatedly measured the association between screen time and depression. | Canada; 3826 (47%) | 12.7–15.7 Grade 7–11 | Self-report how much time per day they spend on social networking sites; Response: 0–30 min, 30 min–1.5 h, 1.5 h–2.5 h, ≥3.5 h | BSI |
Brunborg et al. 2019 | LS | Examined association between time spent on social media and depression, conduct problems, and drinking. | Norway; 763 (55%) | 15.22 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: <1 to >15 in hourly increments | PHQ9 |
Calandri et al. 2021 | LS | Investigated the relationships between social media use and depressive symptoms. | Italy; 336 (48%) | 13.0 (13–15) | Self-report daily hrs spent on communicating online with friends through social networks; Response: 0, 1, 2, ≥3 | CESD |
Costa et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the associations between self-reported and accelerometer-measured movement behaviors and depressive symptoms. | Brazil; 610 (52%) | 16.30 (14–18) | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: <2, 2–4, ≥4 | CESD |
Coyne et al. 2019 | CS | Examined the association between time spent using social media and depression and anxiety at the intra-individual level. | USA; 500 (52%) | 13–20 | Self-report daily hours on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 9 (>8) | CESD |
Dredge et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the association between online gaming and social media use frequency, depression, and other mental health. | China; 320 (47%) | 13.98 (12–17) | Self-report daily time spent on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 9 (>8) | PHQ9 |
Ellis et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the relationships between psychological adjustment and stress and the initial COVID-19 crisis. | Canada; 1054 (76%) | 16.68 (14–18) | Self-report daily time spent using social media platforms; Response: <10 min, 10–30 min, 31–60 min, 1–2 h, 2–3 h, 3–5 h, 5–10 h, to more than 10 h | BSI |
Fardouly et al. 2020 | CS | Investigated differences between preadolescent users and non-users of various social media platforms on mental health. | Australia; 528 (269) | 11.19 | Self-report daily time spent on social media platform; Response: 0 (0), 1 (<5 min), 2 (5–15 min), 3 (15–30) min, 4 (30 min–1 h), 5 (1–2 h), 6 (2–4 h), 7 (4–6 h), 8 (6–8 h), 9 (8–10 h), 10 (10–12 h or more). | SMFQ |
Frison et al. 2016 | LS | Examined the relationships between peer victimization on Facebook, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. | Belgium; 1621 (51%) | 14.76 (12–19) | Self-report daily hours spent on Facebook; Response: 0 (0), 1 (0.5), 2 (0.5–1), 3 (1–1.5), 4 (1.5–2), 5 (2–2.5), 6 (2.5–3), 7 (3–4), 8 (4–5), 9 (>5), 10 (always logged in and available for interaction) | CESD |
Kelly et al. 2018 | CS | Assessed association between social media use and adolescents’ depressive symptoms. | UK; 10,904 (50%) | 14.30 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 0, <1, 1–3, 3–5, ≥5 | SMFQ |
Lemola et al. 2014 | CS | Sought a better understand the interplay between sleep, depressive symptoms, and electronic media use at night | Switzerland; 362 (45%) | 14.82 (12–17) | Self-report daily duration spent online on Facebook; Response: self-administered open answer | CESD |
Ma et al. 2021 | LS | Examined how time spent on types of screen use was associated with depressive symptoms. | Sweden; 3556 (51%) | 8 grades | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: >2, 2, 1, <1, 0 | Question of how often felt depressed |
McAllister et al. 2021 | CS | Compared associations across specific screen media activities and examined associations with self-harm behaviors. | UK; 4243 (55%) | 13.75 (13–15) | Self-report time diary on one weekday and one weekend day from 4:00 am one day to 4:00 am the next day; for each 10 min time slot | SMFQ |
Morin-Major et al. 2015 | CS | Explored the associations between Facebook and basal levels of cortisol among adolescents. | Canada; 94 (53%) | 14.50 (12–17) | Self-report weekly time spent on Facebook; Response (hours): 1 (<1), 2 (2–5), 3 (6–10), 4 (11–15), 5 (16–20), 6 (>21) | CDI |
Padilla-Walker et al. 2019 | CS | Explored the links between parental media monitoring and adolescents’ internalizing symptoms. | USA; 1155 (51%) | 10–20 | Self-report daily time spent on social media; Response: 1 (none), 2 (less than 30 min), 3 (31–60 min), 4 (1–2 h), 5 (2–3 h), 6 (3–4 h), 7 (5–6 h), 8 (7–8 h), and 9 (≥9 h) | CESD |
Pantic et al. 2012 | CS | Investigated the relationship between social networking and depression in adolescent. | Serbia; 160 (68%) | 18.02 | Self-report daily time spent on social networking sites; Response: self-administered open answer | BDI |
Sela et al. 2020 | CS | Tested the association between family environment and excessive internet use among adolescents. | Israel; 85 (41%) | 14.04 (12–16) | Objectively measure time logged in various social medias on the smartphone for 14 days; Response: average time per day spent on social media. | BDI |
Shoshani et al. 2021 | LS | Examined the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents’ mental health and well-being, and potential risk and protective moderators. | Israel; 1537 (52%) | 13.97 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 0, <1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ≥7. | BSI |
Story 2021 | CS | Assessed the link between the time spent on social networking sites and depression among 9th and 10th grade high school students. | USA; 85 (56.5%) | 14.88 (14–16) | Self-report the number of times and the number of min they spent on SNS daily. Response: sum of the min was divided by the sum of the times | PHQ |
Tamura et al. 2017 | CS | Investigated the relationship between mobile phone use and insomnia and depression in adolescents. | Japan; 295 (41%) | 16.20 (15–19) | Self-report daily time spent on social networking sites; Response (min): 0, <30, 30–60, 60–120, ≥120 | CESD |
Tao et al. 2021 | CS | Assessed the relationships among social media use, individual and vicarious social media discrimination, and mental health. | USA; 407 (82%) | 16.47 (15–18) | Self-report Total time spent on social media per week; Response: multiple days/week by h/day | CESD |
Thorisdottir et al. 2019 | CS | Documented the prevalence of social media use and investigate the relationship of both active and passive social media use to anxiety and depressed mood. | Iceland; 10,563 (50%) | 14–16 | Self-report daily hours on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 8 (≥6) | OSCD |
Twenge et al. 2021 | CS | Examined associations between different types of screen activities and mental health. | UK; 11,423 (50%) | 13.77 (13–15) | Self-report hours spent on social networking or messaging sites on a normal weekday during term time; Response: <0.5, 0.5–0.99, 1–1.99, 2–2.99, 3–4.99, 5–6.99, ≥7 | SMFQ |
Woods et al. 2016 | CS | Examined how social media use related to sleep quality, self-esteem, anxiety and depression. | UK; 467 | 11–17 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 1 (<1) to 6 (>6) | HADS |
Zielenski et al. 2021 | CS | Examined the relationship between Instagram use, social comparison, and depressive symptoms. | USA; 110 (56%) | 12–18 | Self-report daily hours spent on Instagram; Response:<1 h; 1–2 h; 2–3 h; 3–4 h; 4–5 h; >5 h | CESD |
Variables | K | OR | 95%CI | Z | Heterogeneity Test | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I2(%) | Qw | p-Value | |||||
Gender, Qb(2) = 40.44 *** | |||||||
Boys | 4 | 1.20 | 1.05–1.37 | 2.62 * | 8.9 | 3.29 | 0.349 |
Girls | 4 | 1.72 | 1.41–2.09 | 5.38 *** | 66.8 | 9.03 | 0.029 |
Mixed | 22 | 1.67 | 1.52–1.84 | 10.27 *** | 60.8 | 53.14 | 0.001 |
Age, Qb(2) = 9.28 ** | |||||||
<14 | 10 | 1.54 | 1.34–1.79 | 5.85 *** | 54.9 | 19.96 | 0.018 |
>14 | 17 | 1.61 | 1.41–1.84 | 7.10 *** | 79 | 76.11 | <0.001 |
Mixed | 3 | 1.66 | 1.40–1.97 | 5.73 *** | 0 | 0.55 | 0.758 |
Regions, Qb(3) = 4.13 | |||||||
Europe | 14 | 1.54 | 1.33–1.79 | 5.74 *** | 82.8 | 75.58 | <0.001 |
North America | 10 | 1.68 | 1.41–1.99 | 5.88 *** | 62.1 | 23.73 | 0.005 |
Asia | 4 | 1.47 | 1.25–1.73 | 5.38 *** | 0 | 2.41 | 0.491 |
Others | 2 | 1.72 | 1.41–2.09 | 4.73 *** | 0 | 0.05 | 0.820 |
Measure of Time Spent on Social Media, Qb(1) = 0.23 | |||||||
Total | 26 | 1. | 1.45–1.76 | 9.39 *** | 73.7 | 95.11 | <0.001 |
Specific | 4 | 1.56 | 1.01–2.40 | 1.99 | 71.6 | 10.56 | 0.014 |
Measure of Depression, Qb(5) = 56.7 *** | |||||||
SMFQ | 7 | 1.44 | 1.26–1.65 | 5.20 *** | 62.3 | 15.92 | 0.014 |
CESD | 11 | 1.77 | 1.48–2.10 | 6.39 *** | 60 | 24.98 | 0.005 |
BDI | 2 | 1.52 | 0.96–2.41 | 1.79 | 0 | 0.55 | 0.458 |
PHQ9 | 3 | 1.55 | 1.25–1.91 | 4.04 ** | 0 | 1.88 | 0.391 |
BSI | 3 | 1.59 | 1.41–1.80 | 7.50 *** | 36.2 | 3.14 | 0.208 |
Others | 4 | 1.51 | 1.02–2.24 | 2.04 * | 76.4 | 12.73 | 0.005 |
Sample Sizes, Qb(1) = 0.35 | |||||||
>1000 | 13 | 1.55 | 1.37–1.76 | 6.88 *** | 83.3 | 33.5 | 0.006 |
<1000 | 17 | 1.65 | 1.42–1.92 | 6.54 *** | 52.3 | 72.050 | <0.001 |
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Liu, M.; Kamper-DeMarco, K.E.; Zhang, J.; Xiao, J.; Dong, D.; Xue, P. Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095164
Liu M, Kamper-DeMarco KE, Zhang J, Xiao J, Dong D, Xue P. Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(9):5164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095164
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Mingli, Kimberly E. Kamper-DeMarco, Jie Zhang, Jia Xiao, Daifeng Dong, and Peng Xue. 2022. "Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 9: 5164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095164