Different Coping Patterns among US Graduate and Undergraduate Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Machine Learning Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Contribution
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Demographic Questionnaire
2.2.2. Ways of Coping Measures
2.2.3. COVID-19 Questionnaire
ID | Question | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | I feel less motivated. | 0.82 | |||||
2 | I procrastinate more now than ever before. | 0.77 | |||||
3 | I feel I am less engaged academically. | 0.76 | |||||
4 | I have not been keeping up to date on my studies. | 0.73 | |||||
5 | I am worried about taking classes and studying online. | 0.66 | |||||
6 | I am worried that I will receive grades that are lower than I originally anticipated. | 0.66 | |||||
7 | I am concerned about staying on top of my academics. | 0.62 | |||||
8 | Below are some descriptions of my personal situation: the coronavirus pandemic is stressful to me; the coronavirus pandemic made it difficult for me to relax; the coronavirus pandemic made me feel like I was consuming a lot of energy; the coronavirus pandemic made it difficult for me to calm down. | 0.77 | |||||
9 | Since the coronavirus outbreak, I have experienced the following emotions: Anxiety, depression, tension, anger, fear, sadness, concern. | 0.74 | |||||
10 | Since the coronavirus outbreak, I am fearful that I will be infected. | 0.72 | |||||
11 | I am worried that my family will get sick with the coronavirus (e.g., siblings, parents, grandparents). | 0.56 | |||||
12 | I feel upset when reading or hearing negative comments about China and Chinese people on the coronavirus. | 0.82 | |||||
13 | I am worried about the discrimination Asians are facing due to coronavirus. | 0.80 | |||||
14 | I am aware of Asians’ experience with discrimination due to the coronavirus. | 0.75 | |||||
15 | I think the regulations imposed as a result of the coronavirus are an overreaction (e.g., school closures, restaurant and bar closures, lockdowns). | 0.72 | |||||
16R * | I am frustrated that some people are not paying attention to the dangers of coronavirus. | 0.70 | |||||
17R | I feel relieved that schools are closed and classes have moved online. | 0.65 | |||||
18R | Below are some descriptions of my personal situation: I think it’s a good idea to be well protected; I want to be well protected; I can be well protected; I know how to protect myself; I have complete control over my protection; I advise others to take precautions. | 0.43 ** | |||||
19R | I feel supported by my professors and university. | 0.78 | |||||
20R | I feel supported by my parents. | 0.70 | |||||
21R | I feel supported by my friends. | 0.70 | |||||
22R | I am satisfied with the communication from my program/university regarding the coronavirus pandemic. | 0.64 | |||||
23 | I do not agree with strategies related to preventing the spread of the coronavirus (e.g., face masks only need to be worn by people who are sick, not touching my face, social distancing). | 0.69 | |||||
24 | It was confusing for me to hear the CDC’s statement that wearing a face mask would not protect me from the coronavirus. | 0.66 | |||||
25 | I feel judged wearing a face mask in public. | 0.56 |
COVID-19 Domain | Item# | Cronbach’s Alpha |
---|---|---|
Academic Adjustment | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 | 0.85 |
Emotionality | 8, 9, 10, 11 | 0.75 |
Discriminatory Impact Adjustment | 12, 13, 14 | 0.78 |
Regulation Reaction_General | 15, 16R, 17R, 18R | 0.63 |
Social Support | 19R, 20R, 21R, 22R | 0.69 |
Regulation Reaction_Specific | 23, 24, 25 | 0.40 |
2.3. Methods
2.3.1. Association Rule Mining
2.3.2. Lift
2.3.3. Encoding Survey Results as Market Basket Items
2.3.4. Frequent Pattern Generation
- ‘20’
- : I am an undergraduate
- ‘W1-1’
- : Positive Reappraisal. Score: Disagree
- ‘W2-3’
- : Escape Avoidance. Score: Neutral
- ‘C4-5’
- : Discriminatory Adjustment. Score: Strongly Agree
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Coping Patterns in Graduate Students
4.2. Coping Patterns in Undergraduate Students
4.3. Age Differences in Coping
4.4. General Patterns Related to the COVID-19 Discrimination
4.5. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Undergraduate (N = 242) | Graduate (N = 275) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | |
Ethnicity | ||||
White (including Middle Eastern) | 99 | 40.9 | 136 | 49.5 |
Black or African American | 5 | 2.1 | 7 | 2.5 |
Hispanic or Latino | 19 | 7.9 | 19 | 6.9 |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.4 |
Asian | 101 | 41.7 | 101 | 36.7 |
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander | 1 | 0.4 | 1 | 0.4 |
Other | 17 | 7 | 10 | 3.6 |
Student Status | ||||
International Student | 39 | 16.1 | 77 | 28 |
Domestic Student | 203 | 83.9 | 198 | 72 |
Major | ||||
STEM | 69 | 28.5 | 39 | 14.2 |
Humanities | 8 | 3.3 | 39 | 14.2 |
Social Science | 114 | 47.1 | 182 | 66.2 |
Medicine or related fields | 14 | 5.8 | 33 | 12 |
Law | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1.8 |
Business | 22 | 9.1 | 5 | 1.8 |
Other | 15 | 6.2 | 8 | 2.9 |
Gender | ||||
Male | 50 | 20.7 | 41 | 14.9 |
Female | 192 | 79.3 | 232 | 84.4 |
Other | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.7 |
Commute | Biking | Taking Bus | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Class Arrival | ||||
On Time | 150 | 750 | 900 | |
Tardy | 50 | 50 | 100 | |
Total | 200 | 800 | 1000 |
Domain | Description | Score | ARM Item * |
---|---|---|---|
COVID-19 Domains | |||
C1 | Emotionality | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C1-1 C1-2 C1-3 C1-4 C1-5 |
C2 | Social Support | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C2-1 C2-2 C2-3 C2-4 C2-5 |
C3 | Academic Adjustment | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C3-1 C3-2 C3-3 C3-4 C3-5 |
C4 | Discriminatory Adjustment | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C4-1 C4-2 C4-3 C4-4 C4-5 |
C5 | Regulation Reaction - Specific | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C5-1 C5-2 C5-3 C5-4 C5-5 |
C6 | Regulation Reaction - General | 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree | C6-1 C6-2 C6-3 C6-4 C6-5 |
Ways of Coping Domains | |||
W1 | Escape Avoidance | 1. Never used 2. Somewhat used 3. Used quite a bit 4. Used a great deal | W1-1 W1-2 W1-3 W1-4 |
W2 | Planful Problem Solving | 1. Never used 2. Somewhat used 3. Used quite a bit 4. Used a great deal | W2-1 W2-2 W2-3 W2-4 |
W3 | Positive Reappraisal | 1. Never used 2. Somewhat used 3. Used quite a bit 4. Used a great deal | W3-1 W3-2 W3-3 W3-4 |
Index | Encoded Rules | Interpretations |
---|---|---|
Graduate Group * | ||
G1 | {W2-1, C4-5} → {C1-5} | Students who do not practice planful problem solving and were exposed to discriminatory language/behaviors during the pandemic are likely to experience strong emotional reactions. |
G2 | {C2-1, W3-1} → { C4-5} | Students who do not use positive reappraisal coping and have less social support during the COVID are likely to experience discrimination. |
G3 | {C6-2, C1-5} → {C4-5 } | Students who show compliance to regulations and experience intense emotions during COVID are likely to experience discrimination. |
Undergraduate Group ** | ||
U1 | {W1-3} → {C1-5} | Students who use medium levels of avoidance coping tend to have negative emotions. |
U2 | {C1-5} → {W1-3} | Students who have negative emotion tend to use medium levels of avoidance coping. |
U3 | {C4-5, C1-5} → {W1-3} | Students who experience strong discrimination impact and negative emotions are likely to show fair usage of avoidance in coping. |
U4 | {W3-1} → {C4-5} | Students who do not use positive reappraisal are likely to experience discrimination impact. |
U5 | {W3-1, W1-1} → {C4-5} | Students who do not use positive reappraisal and use medium levels of avoidance coping are likely to experience discrimination impact. |
U6 | {W3-1, W2-1} → {C4-5} | Students who do not use positive reappraisal and are less likely to use planful problem solving are likely to experience discrimination impact. |
U7 | {W3-1, C1-5} → {C4-5} | Students who do not use positive reappraisal and experience negative emotions are likely to experience discrimination. |
U8 | {C3-5, W3-1} → {C4-5 } | Students who do not use positive reappraisal and experience high academic adjustment stress are likely to experience more discriminatory impact. |
U9 | {C2-2, C4-5} → {W3-1} | Students who experience less social support and high discrimination during COVID are less likely to use positive reappraisal. |
U10 | {C6-3, C4-5} → {W3-1} | Students who experience average regulation stress and high discrimination are less likely to use positive reappraisal. |
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Share and Cite
Zhao, Y.; Ding, Y.; Shen, Y.; Failing, S.; Hwang, J. Different Coping Patterns among US Graduate and Undergraduate Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Machine Learning Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042430
Zhao Y, Ding Y, Shen Y, Failing S, Hwang J. Different Coping Patterns among US Graduate and Undergraduate Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Machine Learning Approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(4):2430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042430
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Yijun, Yi Ding, Yangqian Shen, Samuel Failing, and Jacqueline Hwang. 2022. "Different Coping Patterns among US Graduate and Undergraduate Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Machine Learning Approach" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4: 2430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042430