Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Approach and Procedure
2.2. Participants and Sampling Strategy
2.3. Measures
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics, Internal Consistency and Pearson Correlation Coefficients
3.2. Competing Measurement Models
3.3. Estimating the Structural Model
3.4. Assessing the Indirect Effects
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PEC | Profile of Emotional Competence |
LOT-R | Life Orientation Test-Revised |
UWES | Utrecht Work Engagement Scale |
DAS-21 | Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 |
References
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Participants’ Characteristics | Frequency | Percentage | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Females | 344 | 94 |
Males | 22 | 6 | |
Accommodation | With Family | 126 | 34.4 |
Student Residence | 161 | 44 | |
Rental with friends | 65 | 17.8 | |
Rental alone | 14 | 3.8 | |
Marital status (%) | Single | 360 | 98.6 |
Married | 5 | 1.4 | |
Children | Yes | 5 | 1.4 |
No | 361 | 98.6 | |
Academic field | Podiatry | 43 | 11.7 |
Emergency Care | 114 | 31.1 | |
Operating Instrumentation | 77 | 21 | |
Paediatric care | 96 | 26.2 | |
Research Masters | 36 | 9.8 | |
Year of enrolment | 1st year | 142 | 38.8 |
2nd year | 128 | 35 | |
3rd year | 96 | 26.2 | |
Repetition of academic year | No | 363 | 99.2 |
Yes | 3 | 0.8 | |
Depression | Normal (0–9) | n = 48 | 13.1 |
Mild (10–13) | n = 127 | 34.7 | |
Moderate (14–20) | n = 162 | 44.3 | |
Severe (21–27) | n = 29 | 7.9 | |
Extremely severe (28+) | --- | --- | |
Anxiety | Normal (0–7) | n = 6 | 1.6 |
Mild (8–9) | n = 38 | 10.4 | |
Moderate (10–14) | n = 160 | 43.7 | |
Severe (15–19) | n = 123 | 33.6 | |
Extremely severe (20+) | n = 39 | 10.7 | |
Stress | Normal (0–14) | n = 186 | 50.8 |
Mild (15–18) | n = 131 | 35.8 | |
Moderate (19–25) | n = 47 | 12.8 | |
Severe (26–33) | n = 2 | 0.5 | |
Extremely severe (34+) | --- | --- | |
Vigour | Very low ≤ 2 | n = 8 | 2.2 |
Low 2.01–3.25 | n = 6 | 1.6 | |
Average 3.26–4.80 | n = 20 | 5.5 | |
High 4.81–5.65 | n = 25 | 6.8 | |
Very High ≥ 5.66 | n = 307 | 83.9 | |
Dedication | Very low ≤ 1.33 | n = 13 | 3.6 |
Low 1.34–2.90 | n = 10 | 2.7 | |
Average 2.91–4.70 | n = 25 | 6.8 | |
High 4.71–5.69 | n = 9 | 2.5 | |
Very high ≥ 5.70 | n = 309 | 84.4 | |
Absorption | Very low ≤ 1.17 | n = 8 | 2.2 |
Low 1.18–2.33 | n = 13 | 3.6 | |
Average 2.34–4.20 | n = 23 | 6.3 | |
High 4.21–5.33 | n = 18 | 4.9 | |
Very high ≥ 5.51 | n = 304 | 83.1 |
Fit Indices | Cut-Off Criterion | Sensitive to N | Penalty for Model Complexity |
---|---|---|---|
Absolute fit indices | |||
Chi-Square (χ2) | Lowest comparative value between measurement models | Yes | No |
Non-Significant Chi-Square (p > 0.01) | |||
Approximate Fit Indices | |||
Root-Means-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) | 0.06 to 0.08 (Marginally Acceptable); 0.01 to 0.05 (Excellent) | No | Yes |
Non-Significant RMSEA (p > 0.01) | |||
90% Confidence Interval Range should not include zero | |||
Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) | 0.06 to 0.08 (Marginally Acceptable); 0.01 to 0.05 (Excellent) | Yes | No |
Incremental fit indices | |||
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) | 0.90 to 0.95 (Marginally Acceptable Fit); 0.96 to 0.99 (Excellent) | No | No |
Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) | 0.90 to 0.95 (Marginally Acceptable Fit); 0.96 to 0.99 (Excellent) | No | Yes |
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) | Lowest value in comparative measurement models | Yes | Yes |
Bayes Information Criterion (BIC) | Lowest value in comparative measurement models | Yes | Yes |
No | Factor | Mean | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | ρ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Stress | 2.11 | 0.46 | 0.38 | 0.29 | 0.77 | - | |||||||
2 | Depression | 1.99 | 0.56 | 0.58 | −0.06 | 0.88 | 0.71 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
3 | Anxiety | 2.03 | 0.56 | 0.41 | −0.16 | 0.85 | 0.87 | 0.76 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
4 | Vigour | 3.84 | 1.50 | 0.06 | −0.77 | 0.71 | −0.21 | −0.49 | −0.27 | - | - | - | - | - |
5 | Dedication | 4.62 | 1.56 | −0.50 | −0.54 | 0.79 | −0.21 | −0.50 | −0.27 | 0.89 | - | - | - | - |
6 | Absorption | 4.29 | 1.41 | −0.19 | −0.54 | 0.65 | −0.21 | −0.50 | −0.27 | 0.89 | 0.91 | - | - | - |
7 | Overall Study Engagement | 4.25 | 1.30 | −0.18 | −0.60 | 0.96 | −0.22 | −0.52 | −0.29 | 0.93 | 0.95 | 0.95 | - | - |
8 | Optimism | 3.44 | 0.70 | −0.29 | 0.02 | 0.61 | −0.33 | −0.61 | −0.39 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.53 | - |
9 | Emotion Regulation | 3.44 | 0.92 | −0.36 | −0.32 | 0.74 | −0.53 | −0.46 | −0.41 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.27 | 0.28 | 0.33 |
Model | χ2 | p-Value | df | χ2/df | CFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR | OFV | 90% C.I RMSEA | Meets Criteria | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | |||||||||||
Model 1 | 968.72 | 0.00 | 649 | 1.49 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.032 | 0.041 | Yes |
Model 2 | 1169.58 | 0.00 | 688 | 1.70 | 0.90 | 0.89 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.039 | 0.048 | No |
Model 3 | 1338.01 | 0.00 | 694 | 1.93 | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.18 | 0.046 | 0.054 | No |
Model 4 | 1153.74 | 0.00 | 703 | 1.64 | 0.90 | 0.89 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.041 | 0.050 | No |
Model 5 | 1122.60 | 0.00 | 667 | 1.68 | 0.90 | 0.89 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.039 | 0.048 | No |
Variable | Estimate | S.E. | p-Value | 95% BC CI | Indirect Effect Present |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emotional regulation indirectly affects engagement through Optimism | 0.16 | 0.05 | 0.00 | [0.09; 0.27] | Yes |
Emotional regulation indirectly affects stress through Optimism | −0.06 | 0.04 | 0.09 | [−0.14; 0.01] | No |
Emotional regulation indirectly affects depression through Optimism | −0.13 | 0.04 | 0.00 | [−0.23; −0.06] | Yes |
Emotional regulation indirectly affects anxiety through Optimism | −0.08 | 0.04 | 0.02 | [−0.17; −0.03] | Yes |
Optimism indirectly affects depression through Engagement | −0.12 | 0.04 | 0.00 | [−0.20; −0.05] | Yes |
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Krifa, I.; van Zyl, L.E.; Braham, A.; Ben Nasr, S.; Shankland, R. Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031413
Krifa I, van Zyl LE, Braham A, Ben Nasr S, Shankland R. Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(3):1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031413
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrifa, Imen, Llewellyn Ellardus van Zyl, Amel Braham, Selma Ben Nasr, and Rebecca Shankland. 2022. "Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 3: 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031413
APA StyleKrifa, I., van Zyl, L. E., Braham, A., Ben Nasr, S., & Shankland, R. (2022). Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Optimism and Emotional Regulation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031413