Carbon Neutrality in the Middle East and North Africa: The Roles of Renewable Energy, Economic Growth, and Government Effectiveness
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Theoretical Rationale and Model Construction
3.2. Data Source
3.3. Descriptive Statistics
3.4. Econometric Approaches
3.4.1. Cross-Sectional Dependence (CD) and Slope Homogeneity Testing
3.4.2. Panel Unit Roots Testing (PURT)
3.4.3. Panel Cointegration Testing
3.4.4. Panel Model Estimations
3.4.5. Model Validity Testing
3.4.6. Granger Causality Test
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Cross-Sectional Dependency and Slope Homogeneity Testing
4.2. Panel Unit Roots Results
4.3. Panel Regression Results
4.4. AMG and CCEMG Results
4.5. Results from EKC Test
4.6. Granger Causality Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Variables | Method | Sample | Time | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bekhet et al. [35] | CO2, EGR | DSEM | GCC | 1980–2011 | Monotonic decreasing |
Djellouli et al. [36] | GDP, CO2 | ARDL | Africa | 2000–2015 | Monotonic increasing |
Esso and Keho [37] | EC, EGR, CO2 | Cointegration, Causality | 12 SSA | 1971–2010 | mixed across countries |
Gyamfi et al. [38] | EC, EGR, CO2 | ARDL | E-7 nations | 1995–2018 | Bidirectional |
Li et al. [39] | EC, EGR, CO2 | CCEMG and the AMG | G20 countries | 1992–2014 | EC and EGR increase CO2 |
Destek and Sinha [40] | EF, EGR, REC | FMOLS, DOLS | OECD | 1980–2014 | U-shaped |
Ntarmah et al. [16] | REC, BF, EGR, CO2 | Panel VAR | SSA | 1990–2018 | Multiple- shapes |
Ehigiamusoe and Dogan [22] | REC, EGR, CO2 | AMG, FMOLS, DOLS | LICs | 1990–2016 | Positive interaction effect |
Gorus and Aydin [20] | EC, EGR, CO2 | Granger causality | MENA | 1975–2014 | Bidirectional |
Halkos and Polemis [41] | CO2, EGR | OLS, GMM | OECD | 1970–2014 | N-shaped |
Xue et al. [19] | URB, CO2, EGR | ARDL | France | 1987–2019 | Monotonic increasing |
He et al. [42] | EGR, CO2, GOV | Spatial Regression | Cities in China | 2001–2018 | Multiple-shapes |
Jebli et al. [43] | CO2, EGR, REC | FMOLS, DOLS | OECD | 1980–2010 | EKC |
Mensah et al. [18] | CO2, EGR, URB | AMG, CCEMG | SSA | 1990–2018 | Monotonic increasing Bidirectional |
Ntarmah et al. [44] | CS, EGR, CO2, POP, REC | Panel VAR | SSA Sub-regions | 1990–2018 | Multiple-shapes |
Zeraibi et al. [45] | GE, CO2, EGR | GMM, FMOLS | China | 2007–2017 | N-Shaped |
Rahman and Vu, [17] | URB, EGR, CO2, REC | ARDL, VECM | Australia, Canada | 1960–2015 | Monotonic increasing Bidirectional |
Sarkodie et al. [46] | REC, CO2, ES | neural network, SIMPLS, ARDL | China | 1961–2016 | EKC |
Authors | Variables | Method | Sample | Time | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Khan et al. [10] | IQ, RE, CE | Panel Data Models | G-7 nations | 1990–2018 | IQ and RE promotes CE |
Hu et al. [34] | EC, EGR, CE | Time series analysis | India | 1990–2018 | RE delays CE |
Abbasi et al. [24] | NRD, EGR, EC, POP, CE | ARDL | UK | 1970–2019 | EGR, EC, NRD negatively affect CE |
Zhang [47] | TI, EGR, CE | STIRPAT model | BRICS | 1990–2019 | TI promotes CE, EGR discourages CE |
Li and Haneklaus [7] | EGR, TO, CE | ARDL | China | 1992–2020 | EKC, TO influence CE |
Shao et al. [8] | ERR&D, RER&D, EGR, CE | DOLS, FMOLS | USA | 1990–2019 | RER&D and ERR&D positively contribute to CE; EGR discourages CE |
Iqbal et al. [48] | EXPD, EI, CE | AMG | OECD | 1990–2019 | EXPD and EGR damages CE |
Koondhar et al. [49] | BioE, CE, ABEG | ARDL | China | 171–2019 | BioE promotes CE |
Qin et al. [6] | FD, RE, EGR, CE | Maki Cointegration | China | 1988–2018 | FD, RE promotes CE, EGR discourages CE |
Chien et al. [9] | EI, Etax, GG, CE | QARDL | USA | 1970–2015 | EI, Etax, and GG promote CE |
Shen et al. [50] | EGR, RE, CE | DOLS, FMOLS | BRICS | 1980–2018 | EKC, RE promotes CE |
Safi et al. [51] | RE, EGR, FDI, CE | Panel Data Models | G-7 nations | 1990–2019 | Etax, ER&D promotes CE; EGR discourages CE |
Udemba and Alola [25] | ECI, RE, CE | Cointegration | Australia | 1996 Q1–2018 Q4 | RE promotes CE; EGR and FDI hampers CE |
Zheng et al. [52] | ECI, RE, CE | AMG, DOLS | 16 major export economies | 1990–2019 | EKC; ECI and RE promote CE |
Li et al. [39] | EXPD, TO, RE, EGR, CE | Time series analysis | China | 1989–2019 | EXPD and RE promote CE; TO and EGR hinders CE |
OBS | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max | Skewness | Kurtosis | Jarque–Bera | Probability | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MENA | |||||||||
lnEGR | 368 | 8.932 | 1.103 | 3.955 | 11.039 | −0.159 | 3.268 | 2.660 | 0.265 |
lnCO2 | 368 | 1.601 | 1.010 | −0.697 | 3.417 | −0.226 | 2.610 | 5.461 | 0.065 |
lnURB | 368 | 4.315 | 0.207 | 3.753 | 4.605 | −1.099 | 4.049 | 90.913 | 0.000 |
lnNRE | 368 | 7.479 | 1.063 | 5.073 | 9.394 | −0.146 | 2.599 | 3.769 | 0.152 |
lnRE | 368 | 1.527 | 1.363 | 0.000 | 4.221 | 0.370 | 1.811 | 30.083 | 0.000 |
lnGEF | 368 | −0.115 | 0.664 | −1.483 | 1.233 | 0.219 | 2.315 | 10.125 | 0.006 |
HICs | |||||||||
lnEGR | 138 | 9.821 | 1.002 | 7.413 | 11.039 | −1.366 | 3.620 | 45.145 | 0.000 |
lnCO2 | 138 | 2.567 | 0.558 | 1.087 | 3.417 | −0.364 | 2.330 | 5.643 | 0.059 |
lnURB | 138 | 4.465 | 0.100 | 4.270 | 4.605 | −0.292 | 2.077 | 6.860 | 0.032 |
lnNRE | 138 | 8.501 | 0.607 | 7.571 | 9.394 | −0.198 | 1.634 | 11.788 | 0.003 |
lnRE | 138 | 0.573 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 2.921 | 1.401 | 3.135 | 45.241 | 0.000 |
lnGEF | 138 | 0.485 | 0.506 | −0.848 | 1.233 | −0.343 | 2.120 | 7.160 | 0.028 |
MICs | |||||||||
lnEGR | 230 | 8.399 | 0.767 | 3.955 | 10.207 | −1.011 | 9.306 | 420.275 | 0.000 |
lnCO2 | 230 | 1.021 | 0.741 | −0.697 | 2.239 | −0.655 | 3.162 | 16.729 | 0.000 |
lnURB | 230 | 4.226 | 0.203 | 3.753 | 4.550 | −1.001 | 3.396 | 39.920 | 0.000 |
lnNRE | 230 | 6.865 | 0.762 | 5.073 | 8.144 | −0.622 | 3.288 | 15.603 | 0.000 |
lnRE | 230 | 2.099 | 1.226 | 0.059 | 4.221 | 0.071 | 1.864 | 12.553 | 0.002 |
lnGEF | 230 | −0.474 | 0.456 | −1.483 | 0.606 | −0.046 | 2.552 | 2.000 | 0.368 |
lnCO2 | lnEGR | lnURB | lnNRE | lnRE | lnGEF | Tol | VIF | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MENA | ||||||||
lnCO2 | 1 | |||||||
lnEGR | 0.529 | 1 | 2.590 | 0.386 | ||||
lnURB | 0.408 | 0.322 | 1 | 1.380 | 0.725 | |||
lnNRE | 0.491 | 0.501 | 0.489 | 1 | 2.660 | 0.376 | ||
lnRE | −0.487 | 0.395 | −0.302 | −0.584 | 1 | 3.240 | 0.309 | |
lnGEF | −0.419 | 0.434 | 0.393 | −0.408 | 0.184 | 1 | 1.450 | 0.690 |
HICs | ||||||||
lnCO2 | 1 | |||||||
lnEGR | 0.554 | 1 | 3.850 | 0.260 | ||||
lnURB | 0.328 | −0.151 | 1 | 1.300 | 0.769 | |||
lnNRE | 0.464 | 0.507 | −0.260 | 1 | 2.380 | 0.420 | ||
lnRE | −0.568 | 0.156 | 0.297 | −0.562 | 1 | 1.970 | 0.508 | |
lnGEF | −0.319 | −0.231 | 0.365 | −0.428 | 0.413 | 1 | 1.630 | 0.613 |
MICs | ||||||||
lnCO2 | 1 | |||||||
lnEGR | 0.390 | 1 | 1.300 | 0.769 | ||||
lnURB | 0.212 | 0.210 | 1 | 1.050 | 0.952 | |||
lnNRE | 0.486 | 0.367 | 0.167 | 1 | 2.640 | 0.379 | ||
lnRE | −0.425 | 0.170 | −0.368 | −0.522 | 1 | 2.350 | 0.426 | |
lnGEF | −0.158 | 0.187 | 0.219 | −0.146 | 0.285 | 1 | 1.150 | 0.870 |
CD-Test | CD2-Test | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MENA | HICs | MICs | MENA | HICs | MICs | |
lnGEF | 5.257 b | 6.968 a | 3.095 b | 22.108 a | 26.264 a | 11.694 a |
lnNRE | 8.784 a | 10.068 a | 7.600 a | 20.434 a | 21.219 a | 17.566 a |
lnCO2 | 5.907 b | 9.429 a | 6.084 a | 18.384 a | 20.150 a | 11.495 a |
lnURB | 4.096 b | 7.587 a | 3.045 b | 22.213 a | 25.315 a | 12.707 a |
lnEGR | 18.404 a | 22.666 a | 11.509 a | 24.210 a | 28.311 a | 16.728 a |
lnRE | 4.944 b | 6.805 a | 4.318 b | 16.289 a | 19.253 a | 14.607 a |
Test | MENA | HICs | MICs |
---|---|---|---|
∆ | 7.643 a | 8.534 a | 4.957 a |
∆Adj | 10.190 a | 12.768 a | 6.075 a |
CIPS | CADF | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MENA | HICs | MICs | MENA | HICs | MICs | |
Level | ||||||
lnGEF | −1.909 | −2.744 b | −1.517 | −1.849 | −2.658 b | −1.469 |
lnNRE | −3.645 a | −2.955 a | −1.814 | −3.312 a | −2.689 b | −1.648 |
lnCO2 | −2.656 b | −2.533 b | −2.139 b | −2.400 b | −2.286 b | −1.931 |
lnURB | −2.269 b | −3.031 a | −3.159 a | −2.238 b | −2.936 a | −3.060 a |
lnEGR | −1.290 | −1.269 | −1.758 | −1.249 | −1.229 | −1.703 |
lnRE | −1.683 | −2.011 b | −1.901 | −1.630 | −1.948 | −1.841 |
First Difference | ||||||
lnGEF | −2.225 b | −2.472 b | −2.563 b | −2.065 b | −2.294 b | −2.378 b |
lnNRE | −4.626 a | −4.850 a | −3.604 a | −4.203 a | −4.407 a | −3.275 a |
LnCO2 | −4.647 a | −4.817 a | −3.837 a | −4.195 a | −4.348 a | −3.464 a |
lnURB | −3.765 a | −4.663 a | −5.217 a | −3.494 a | −4.327 a | −4.840 a |
lnEGR | −3.335 a | −3.419 a | −3.271 a | −3.094 a | −3.173 a | −3.035 a |
lnRE | −3.168 a | −4.589 a | −2.589 | −2.940 a | −4.258 a | −2.402 b |
Westerlund [78] Results | Westerlund [80] Results | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MENA | HICs | MICs | MENA | HICs | MICs | ||
Gt | −9.050 b | −8.850 b | −7.953 b | DHg | 3.236 a | 3.642 a | 2.755 b |
Pt | −11.751 a | −12.208 a | −12.800 a | DHp | 3.560 a | 3.976 a | 3.014 a |
Ga | −13.691 a | −14.251 a | −13.585 a | ||||
Pa | −13.229 a | −15.111 a | −14.534 a |
MENA | HICs | MICs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AMG | CCEMG | AMG | CCEMG | AMG | CCEMG | |
lnGEF | −0.394 b | −0.416 a | −0.231 b | −0.237 a | −0.525 a | −0.559 a |
lnNRE | 0.557 a | 0.554 a | 0.630 a | 0.620 a | 0.320 a | 0.302 a |
lnURB | 0.308 a | 0.304 a | 0.504 a | 0.502 a | 0.290 a | 0.274 a |
lnEGR | 0.744 a | 0.732 a | 0.592 a | 0.602 a | 0.549 a | 0.521 a |
lnRE | −0.381 b | −0.382 b | −0.502 a | −0.498 a | −0.358 b | −0.336 b |
BP Test | 0.62 (0.431) | 1.55 (0.213) | 2.49 (0.115) | |||
WR Test | 1.947 (0.183) | 3.305 (0.129) | 1.116 (0.318) |
MENA | HICs | MICs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AMG | CCEMG | AMG | CCEMG | AMG | CCEMG | |
lnGEF | −0.346 b | −0.365 b | −0.203 b | −0.208 b | −0.461 a | −0.493 a |
lnNRE | 0.489 a | 0.486 a | 0.553 a | 0.544 a | 0.281 b | 0.265 b |
lnURB | 0.270 b | 0.267 b | 0.442 a | 0.441 a | 0.255 b | 0.240 b |
lnEGR | 0.591 a | 0.582 a | 0.471 a | 0.478 a | 0.436 a | 0.414 a |
lnEGR2 | −0.201 c | −0.195 c | −0.262 b | −0.265 b | −0.040 | −0.025 |
lnRE | −0.334 b | −0.335 b | −0.441 a | −0.437 a | −0.314 b | −0.295 b |
BP Test | 0.67 (0.415) | 1.85 (0.174) | 3.08 (0.079) | |||
WR Test | 2.321 (0.148) | 74.209 (0.119) | 1.542 (0.246) |
MENA | HICs | MICs | |
---|---|---|---|
lnNRE → lnCO2 | 5.887 a | 7.807 a | 3.613 a |
LnCO2 → lnNRE | 4.967 a | 1.553 | 6.811 a |
lnGEF → lnCO2 | 10.217 a | 15.681 a | 5.434 a |
LnCO2 → lnGEF | 1.961 c | 2.311 b | 1.619 |
lnRE → lnCO2 | 4.105 a | 3.153 a | 6.935 a |
LnCO2 → lnRE | 6.052 a | 1.080 | 6.293 a |
lnURB → lnCO2 | 4.473 a | 4.388 a | 3.372 a |
LnCO2 → lnURB | 3.118 a | 2.720 b | 4.603 a |
lnEGR → lnCO2 | 6.068 a | 7.713 a | 4.297 a |
lnCO2 → lnEGR | 8.144 a | 10.271 a | 5.416 a |
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Kong, C.; Zhang, J.; Ntarmah, A.H.; Kong, Y.; Zhao, H. Carbon Neutrality in the Middle East and North Africa: The Roles of Renewable Energy, Economic Growth, and Government Effectiveness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10676. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710676
Kong C, Zhang J, Ntarmah AH, Kong Y, Zhao H. Carbon Neutrality in the Middle East and North Africa: The Roles of Renewable Energy, Economic Growth, and Government Effectiveness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(17):10676. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710676
Chicago/Turabian StyleKong, Chuimin, Jijian Zhang, Albert Henry Ntarmah, Yusheng Kong, and Hong Zhao. 2022. "Carbon Neutrality in the Middle East and North Africa: The Roles of Renewable Energy, Economic Growth, and Government Effectiveness" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 17: 10676. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710676