Does Self-Care Make You a Better Leader? A Multisource Study Linking Leader Self-Care to Health-Oriented Leadership, Employee Self-Care, and Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Model of Health-Oriented Leadership
1.2. Linking Leader Self-Care to Employee Perceptions and Behavior
1.2.1. The Improved Leadership Hypothesis
1.2.2. The Role-Modeling Hypothesis
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.3. Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Implications for Theory and Practice
4.2. Limitations and Avenues for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Yang, T.; Shen, Y.-M.; Zhu, M.; Liu, Y.; Deng, J.; Chen, Q.; See, L.-C.; Yang, T.; Shen, Y.-M.; Zhu, M.; et al. Effects of Co-Worker and Supervisor Support on Job Stress and Presenteeism in an Aging Workforce: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 13, 72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nielsen, K.; Randall, R.; Yarker, J.; Brenner, S.-O. The Effects of Transformational Leadership on Followers’ Perceived Work Characteristics and Psychological Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study. Work Stress 2008, 22, 16–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, Y.; Wang, Z.; Yang, L.-Q.; Liu, S. The Crossover of Psychological Distress from Leaders to Subordinates in Teams: The Role of Abusive Supervision, Psychological Capital, and Team Performance. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2016, 21, 142–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dietz, C.; Zacher, H.; Scheel, T.; Otto, K.; Rigotti, T. Leaders as Role Models: Effects of Leader Presenteeism on Employee Presenteeism and Sick Leave. Work Stress 2020, 34, 300–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, K.; Taris, T.W. Leading Well: Challenges to Researching Leadership in Occupational Health Psychology–and Some Ways Forward. Work Stress 2019, 33, 107–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barling, J.; Cloutier, A. Leaders’ Mental Health at Work: Empirical, Methodological, and Policy Directions. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2017, 22, 394–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaluza, A.J.; Boer, D.; Buengeler, C.; van Dick, R. Leadership Behaviour and Leader Self-Reported Well-Being: A Review, Integration and Meta-Analytic Examination. Work Stress 2020, 34, 34–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tafvelin, S.; Nielsen, K.; von Thiele Schwarz, U.; Stenling, A. Leading Well Is a Matter of Resources: Leader Vigour and Peer Support Augments the Relationship between Transformational Leadership and Burnout. Work Stress 2019, 33, 156–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fladerer, M.P.; Braun, S. Managers’ Resources for Authentic Leadership—A Multi-Study Exploration of Positive Psychological Capacities and Ethical Organizational Climates. Br. J. Manag. 2020, 31, 325–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Franke, F.; Felfe, J.; Pundt, A. The Impact of Health-Oriented Leadership on Follower Health: Development and Test of a New Instrument Measuring Health-Promoting Leadership. Ger. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2014, 28, 139–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inceoglu, I.; Thomas, G.; Chu, C.; Plans, D.; Gerbasi, A. Leadership Behavior and Employee Well-Being: An Integrated Review and a Future Research Agenda. Leadersh. Q. 2018, 29, 179–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horstmann, D. Enhancing Employee Self-Care: The Moderating Effect of Personal Initiative on Health-Specific Leadership. Eur. J. Health Psychol. 2018, 25, 96–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santa Maria, A.; Wolter, C.; Gusy, B.; Kleiber, D.; Renneberg, B. The Impact of Health-Oriented Leadership on Police Officers’ Physical Health, Burnout, Depression and Well-Being. Polic. A J. Policy Pract. 2019, 13, 186–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnold, M.; Rigotti, T. Is It Getting Better or Worse? Health-Oriented Leadership and Psychological Capital as Resources for Sustained Health in Newcomers. Appl. Psychol. An Int. Rev. 2020, 70, 709–737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaluza, A.J.; Weber, F.; van Dick, R.; Junker, N.M. When and How Health-Oriented Leadership Relates to Employee Well-Being—The Role of Expectations, Self-Care, and LMX. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2021, 51, 404–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klug, K.; Felfe, J.; Krick, A. Caring for Oneself or for Others? How Consistent and Inconsistent Profiles of Health-Oriented Leadership Are Related to Follower Strain and Health. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 2456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grimm, L.A.; Bauer, G.F.; Jenny, G.J. Is the Health-Awareness of Leaders Related to the Working Conditions, Engagement, and Exhaustion in Their Teams? A Multi-Level Mediation Study. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 1935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sonnentag, S.; Frese, M. Stress in Organizations. In Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and organizational Psychology; Borman, W.C., Ilgen, D.R., Klimoski, R., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2002; Volume 12, pp. 453–491. [Google Scholar]
- Singh-Manoux, A.; Martikainen, P.; Ferrie, J.; Zins, M.; Marmot, M.; Goldberg, M. What Does Self Rated Health Measure? Results from the British Whitehall II and French Gazel Cohort Studies. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2006, 60, 364–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baćak, V.; Ólafsdóttir, S. Gender and Validity of Self-Rated Health in Nineteen European Countries. Scand. J. Public Health 2017, 45, 647–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E. Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. Am. Psychol. 1989, 44, 513–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandura, A. Social Learning Theory; General Learning Press: New York, NY, USA, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Montano, D.; Reeske, A.; Franke, F.; Hüffmeier, J. Leadership, Followers’ Mental Health and Job Performance in Organizations: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis from an Occupational Health Perspective. J. Organ. Behav. 2017, 38, 327–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harms, P.D.; Credé, M.; Tynan, M.; Leon, M.; Jeung, W. Leadership and Stress: A Meta-Analytic Review. Leadersh. Q. 2017, 28, 178–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schyns, B.; Schilling, J. How Bad Are the Effects of Bad Leaders? A Meta-Analysis of Destructive Leadership and Its Outcomes. Leadersh. Q. 2013, 24, 138–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rudolph, C.W.; Murphy, L.D.; Zacher, H. A Systematic Review and Critique of Research on “Healthy Leadership”. Leadersh. Q. 2020, 31, 101335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vincent-Höper, S.; Stein, M. The Role of Leaders in Designing Employees’ Work Characteristics: Validation of the Health- and Development-Promoting Leadership Behavior Questionnaire. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 1049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gurt, J.; Schwennen, C.; Elke, G. Health-Specific Leadership: Is There an Association between Leader Consideration for the Health of Employees and Their Strain and Well-Being? Work Stress 2011, 25, 108–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vonderlin, R.; Schmidt, B.; Müller, G.; Biermann, M.; Kleindienst, N.; Bohus, M.; Lyssenko, L. Health-Oriented Leadership and Mental Health From Supervisor and Employee Perspectives: A Multilevel and Multisource Approach. Front. Psychol. 2021, 11, 4048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richards, K.C.; Campenni, C.E.; Muse-Burke, J.L. Self-Care and Well-Being in Mental Health Professionals: The Mediating Effects of Self-Awareness and Mindfulness. J. Ment. Health Couns. 2010, 32, 247–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cook-Cottone, C.P.; Guyker, W.M. The Development and Validation of the Mindful Self-Care Scale (MSCS): An Assessment of Practices That Support Positive Embodiment. Mindfulness 2018, 9, 161–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levin, L.S.; Idler, E.L. Self-Care in Health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 1983, 4, 181–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGarrigle, T.; Walsh, C.A. Mindfulness, Self-Care, and Wellness in Social Work: Effects of Contemplative Training. J. Relig. Spiritual. Soc. Work 2011, 30, 212–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rudaz, M.; Twohig, M.P.; Ong, C.W.; Levin, M.E. Mindfulness and Acceptance-Based Trainings for Fostering Self-Care and Reducing Stress in Mental Health Professionals: A Systematic Review. J. Context. Behav. Sci. 2017, 6, 380–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Klebe, L.; Felfe, J.; Klug, K. Healthy Leadership in Turbulent Times: The Effectiveness of Health-Oriented Leadership in Crisis. Br. J. Manag. 2021, 32, 1203–1218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horstmann, D.; Remdisch, S. Gesundheitsorientierte Führung in Der Altenpflege. Zeitschrift für Arbeits-und Organisationspsychologie A&O 2016, 60, 199–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Köppe, C.; Kammerhoff, J.; Schütz, A. Leader-Follower Crossover: Exhaustion Predicts Somatic Complaints via StaffCare Behavior. J. Manag. Psychol. 2018, 33, 297–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krick, A.; Felfe, J.; Pischel, S. Health-Oriented Leadership as a Job Resource: Can Staff Care Buffer the Effects of Job Demands on Employee Health and Job Satisfaction? J. Manag. Psychol. 2022, 37, 139–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klebe, L.; Klug, K.; Felfe, J. The Show Must Go On. Zeitschrift für Arbeits-und Organisationspsychologie A&O 2021, 65, 231–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krick, A.; Felfe, J.; Klug, K. Turning Intention into Participation in Occupational Health Promotion Courses? The Moderating Role of Organizational, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal Factors. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2019, 61, 779–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krick, A.; Felfe, J.; Klug, K. Building Resilience: Trajectories of Heart Rate Variability during a Mindfulness-Based Intervention and the Role of Individual and Social Characteristics. Int. J. Stress Manag. 2021, 28, 220–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cavanaugh, M.A.; Boswell, W.R.; Roehling, M.V.; Boudreau, J.W. An Empirical Examination of Self-Reported Work Stress among U.S. Managers. J. Appl. Psychol. 2000, 85, 65–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Knudsen, H.K.; Ducharme, L.J.; Roman, P.M. Turnover Intention and Emotional Exhaustion “at the Top”: Adapting the Job Demands-Resources Model to Leaders of Addiction Treatment Organizations. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2009, 14, 84–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Neck, C.P.; Houghton, J.D. Two Decades of Self-Leadership Theory and Research: Past Developments, Present Trends, and Future Possibilities. J. Manag. Psychol. 2006, 21, 270–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manz, C.C.; Sims, H.P. Super Leadership: Beyond the Myth of Heroic Leadership. Organ. Dyn. 1991, 19, 18–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Furtner, M.R.; Baldegger, U.; Rauthmann, J.F. Leading Yourself and Leading Others: Linking Self-Leadership to Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 2013, 22, 436–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayer, D.M.; Aquino, K.; Greenbaum, R.L.; Kuenzi, M. Who Displays Ethical Leadership, and Why Does It Matter? An Examination of Antecedents and Consequences of Ethical Leadership. Acad. Manag. J. 2012, 55, 151–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stein, M.; Vincent-Höper, S.; Gregersen, S. Why Busy Leaders May Have Exhausted Followers: A Multilevel Perspective on Supportive Leadership. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 2020, 41, 829–845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, A.; Carpenter, N.C. Seeing Eye to Eye: A Meta-Analysis of Self-Other Agreement of Leadership. Leadersh. Q. 2018, 29, 253–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ostroff, C.; Atwater, L.E.; Feinberg, B.J. Understanding Self-Other Agreement: A Look at Rater and Ratee Characteristics, Context and Outcomes. Pers. Psychol. 2004, 57, 333–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spector, P.E. Do Not Cross Me: Optimizing the Use of Cross-Sectional Designs. J. Bus. Psychol. 2019, 34, 125–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kelloway, E.K.; Barling, J. Leadership Development as an Intervention in Occupational Health Psychology. Work Stress 2010, 24, 260–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wo, D.X.H.; Schminke, M.; Ambrose, M.L. Trickle-down, Trickle-out, Trickle-up, Trickle-in, and Trickle-around Effects: An Integrative Perspective on Indirect Social Influence Phenomena. J. Manag. 2019, 45, 2263–2292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Westman, M. Stress and Strain Crossover. Hum. Relations 2001, 54, 717–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wirtz, N.; Rigotti, T.; Otto, K.; Loeb, C. What about the Leader? Crossover of Emotional Exhaustion and Work Engagement from Followers to Leaders. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 2017, 22, 86–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Løkke Nielsen, A.-K. Determinants of Absenteeismin Public Organizations: A Unit-Level Analysis of Work Absence in a Large Danish Municipality. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2008, 19, 1330–1348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pundt, F.; Felfe, J. Health Oriented Leadership. Instrument Zur Erfassung Gesundheitsförderlicher Führung; Hogrefe: Göttingen, Germany, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Mohr, G.; Müller, A.; Rigotti, T.; Aycan, Z.; Tschan, F. The Assessment of Psychological Strain in Work Contexts. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 2006, 22, 198–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mohr, G.; Rigotti, T.; Müller, A. Irritation Scale for the Assessment of Work-Related Strain; Hogrefe: Oxford, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Mohr, G. Die Erfassung Psychischer Befindensbeeinträchtigungen Bei Industriearbeitern; Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Nübling, M.; Stößel, U.; Hasselhorn, H.-M.; Michaelis, M.; Hofmann, F. Measuring Psychological Stress and Strain at Work—Evaluation of the COPSOQ Questionnaire in Germany. GMS Psycho-Social Med. 2006, 3, Doc05. [Google Scholar]
- Macintyre, S.; Hunt, K.; Sweeting, H. Gender Differences in Health: Are Things Really as Simple as They Seem? Soc. Sci. Med. 1996, 42, 617–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marmot, M.; Allen, J.; Bell, R.; Bloomer, E.; Goldblatt, P. WHO European Review of Social Determinants of Health and the Health Divide. Lancet 2012, 380, 1011–1029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sin, H.-P.; Nahrgang, J.D.; Morgeson, F.P. Understanding Why They Don’t See Eye to Eye: An Examination of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Agreement. J. Appl. Psychol. 2009, 94, 1048–1057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thiel, C.E.; Hardy, J.H.; Peterson, D.R.; Welsh, D.T.; Bonner, J.M. Too Many Sheep in the Flock? Span of Control Attenuates the Influence of Ethical Leadership. J. Appl. Psychol. 2018, 103, 1324–1334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muthén, L.K.; Muthén, B.O. Mplus User’s Guide, 8th ed.; Muthén & Muthén: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1998–2017. [Google Scholar]
- Pituch, K.A.; Stapleton, L.M. Distinguishing between Cross-and Cluster-Level Mediation Processes in the Cluster Randomized Trial. Sociol. Methods Res. 2012, 41, 630–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Preacher, K.J.; Zyphur, M.J.; Zhang, Z. A General Multilevel SEM Framework for Assessing Multilevel Mediation. Psychol. Methods 2010, 15, 209–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Stride, C.B.; Gardner, S.; Catley, N.; Thomas, F. Mplus Code for Mediation, Moderation, and Moderated Mediation Models. Available online: http://www.offbeat.group.shef.ac.uk/FIO/mplusmedmod.htm (accessed on 16 March 2021).
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Rucker, D.D.; Preacher, K.J.; Tormala, Z.L.; Petty, R.E. Mediation Analysis in Social Psychology: Current Practices and New Recommendations. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2011, 5, 359–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobfoll, S.E.; Halbesleben, J.; Neveu, J.-P.; Westman, M. Conservation of Resources in the Organizational Context: The Reality of Resources and Their Consequences. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018, 5, 103–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Klebe, L.; Felfe, J.; Klug, K. Mission Impossible? Effects of Crisis, Leader and Follower Strain on Health-Oriented Leadership. Eur. Manag. J. 2021; in press. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Podsakoff, P.M.; MacKenzie, S.B.; Lee, J.-Y.; Podsakoff, N.P. Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 2003, 88, 879–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Idler, E.L.; Benyamini, Y. Self-Rated Health and Mortality: A Review of Twenty-Seven Community Studies. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1997, 38, 21–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
M (SD)/% | ICC | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level 1: Employee variables | |||||||||||||||
1 Age | 44.67 (10.94) | – | −0.09 | 0.39 ** | −0.02 | −0.17 | 0.25 | 0.09 | 0.30 * | 0.13 | −0.24 | ||||
2 Gender | 0.78 (0.42) | 0.03 | – | −0.19 | 0.17 | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.17 | 0.18 | 0.45 ** | −0.23 | ||||
3 Tenure with leader | 4.35 (4.37) | 0.30 *** | −0.04 | – | 0.17 | 0.34 * | 0.06 | −0.06 | 0.14 | −0.08 | 0.05 | ||||
4 Employee self-care | 3.19 (0.58) | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.07 | (0.79) | 0.53 *** | −0.48 ** | −0.43 ** | −0.38 ** | −0.38 ** | 0.52 *** | |||
5 Employee staff care | 3.23 (0.81) | 0.20 | −0.05 | −0.05 | 0.07 | 0.46 *** | (0.93) | −0.51 *** | −0.53 *** | −0.35 * | −0.28 | 0.31 * | |||
6 Irritation global | 2.34 (0.88) | 0.05 | 0.10 * | 0.04 | 0.01 | −0.49 *** | −0.37 *** | (0.86) | 0.81 *** | 0.87 *** | 0.43 ** | −0.54 *** | |||
7 Cognitive irritation | 2.64 (1.18) | 0.09 | 0.07 | −0.05 | −0.04 | −0.45 *** | −0.31 *** | 0.80 *** | (0.86) | 0.42 ** | 0.14 | −0.24 | |||
8 Emotional irritation | 2.17 (0.94) | 0.04 | 0.09 * | 0.10 * | 0.05 | −0.39 *** | −0.32 *** | 0.89 *** | 0.44 *** | (0.85) | 0.55 *** | −0.63 *** | |||
9 Psychosomatic complaints | 2.30 (0.85) | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.24 *** | −0.01 | −0.36 *** | −0.28 *** | 0.57 *** | 0.43 *** | 0.53 *** | (0.65) | −0.79 *** | |||
10 Overall health | 7.42 (1.75) | 0.09 | −0.19 *** | −0.08 | 0.00 | 0.40 *** | 0.30 *** | −0.47 *** | −0.30 *** | −0.47 *** | −0.54 *** | – | |||
Level 2: Leader variables | |||||||||||||||
11 Span of control | 13.89 (5.92) | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.05 | −0.08 | −0.15 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 0.25 | 0.28 | −0.32 * | – | |||
12 Leader self-care | 3.21 (0.61) | 0.06 | 0.07 | −0.03 | 0.05 | 0.24 | −0.19 | −0.19 | −0.13 | 0.07 | −0.03 | 0.30 * | (0.85) | ||
13 Leader staff care | 3.64 (0.49) | −0.07 | 0.22 | −0.04 | 0.21 | 0.36* | −0.18 | −0.18 | −0.12 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.61 *** | (0.86) |
Irritation | Psychosomatic Complaints | Overall Health | |
---|---|---|---|
Level 1 | γ (SE) | γ (SE) | γ (SE) |
Employee staff care | |||
Age | 0.08 (0.05) | 0.08 (0.05) | 0.08 (0.05) |
Gender | 0.03 (0.05) | 0.03 (0.05) | 0.03 (0.05) |
Tenure with leader | 0.11 (0.06) † | 0.11 (0.06) † | 0.11 (0.06) † |
Employee self-care | |||
Age | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.05) |
Gender | 0.07 (0.04) | 0.07 (0.04) | 0.07 (0.04) |
Tenure with leader | 0.07 (0.05) | 0.07 (0.05) | 0.07 (0.05) |
Health outcomes | |||
Age | 0.12 (0.05) * | 0.10 (0.05) * | −0.22 (0.05) *** |
Gender | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.24 (0.04) *** | −0.07 (0.05) |
Tenure with leader | 0.01 (0.06) | −0.02 (0.04) | 0.06 (0.06) |
Employee staff care (b2.1) | −0.18 (0.05) ** | −0.15 (0.07) * | 0.18 (0.06) ** |
Employee self-care (b3.1) | −0.43 (0.04) *** | −0.32 (0.05) *** | 0.33 (0.05) *** |
Level 2 | γ (SE) | γ (SE) | γ (SE) |
Leader staff care | |||
Span of control | 0.27 (0.10) ** | 0.27 (0.10) ** | 0.27 (0.10) ** |
Leader self-care (a1) | 0.62 (0.07) *** | 0.62 (0.07) *** | 0.62 (0.07) *** |
Employee staff care | |||
Span of control | −0.23 (0.10) * | −0.23 (0.10) * | −0.23 (0.10) * |
Leader self-care (a2.2) | 0.02 (0.18) | 0.02 (0.18) | 0.02 (0.18) |
Leader staff care (d1) | 0.47 (0.15) ** | 0.47 (0.15) ** | 0.47 (0.15) ** |
Employee self-care | |||
Span of control | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.11 (0.13) |
Leader self-care (a3.2) | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.11 (0.13) |
Health outcomes | |||
Span of control | 0.37 (0.36) | −0.47 (0.17) ** | −0.47 (0.16) ** |
Leader self-care (c’) | −0.49 (0.37) | 0.11 (0.22) | −0.11 (0.21) |
Leader staff care (b1) | 0.02 (0.34) | −0.15 (0.21) | 0.40 (0.21) † |
Employee staff care (b2.2) | 0.19 (0.49) | 0.39 (0.24) | −0.75 (0.22) ** |
Employee self-care (b3.2) | 0.02 (0.41) | −0.38 (0.23) † | 0.53 (0.18) ** |
Variance components | |||
Residual variance Level 1 | 0.54 | 0.53 | 0.76 |
Residual variance Level 2 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.23 |
R2 Level 1 | 0.31 *** | 0.23 *** | 0.24 *** |
Irritation | Psychosomatic Complaints | Overall Health | |
---|---|---|---|
Indirect effects | γ (SE) | γ (SE) | γ (SE) |
Leader self-care → Leader staff care (M1) → Employee staff care (M2) → Employee health | |||
Within-indirect effect | −0.04 (0.02) * | −0.03 (0.02) † | 0.08 (0.04) * |
Between-indirect effect | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.04) | −0.17 (0.10) † |
Total effect via staff care | −0.14 (0.06) * | 0.02 (0.07) | 0.01 (0.13) |
Leader self-care → Employee self-care → Employee health | |||
Within-indirect effect | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.02) | 0.04 (0.05) |
Between-indirect effect | 0.00 (0.01) | −0.02 (0.02) | 0.05 (0.06) |
Total effect via self-care | −0.14 (0.08) † | 0.01 (0.10) | 0.00 (0.18) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Klug, K.; Felfe, J.; Krick, A. Does Self-Care Make You a Better Leader? A Multisource Study Linking Leader Self-Care to Health-Oriented Leadership, Employee Self-Care, and Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116733
Klug K, Felfe J, Krick A. Does Self-Care Make You a Better Leader? A Multisource Study Linking Leader Self-Care to Health-Oriented Leadership, Employee Self-Care, and Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(11):6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116733
Chicago/Turabian StyleKlug, Katharina, Jörg Felfe, and Annika Krick. 2022. "Does Self-Care Make You a Better Leader? A Multisource Study Linking Leader Self-Care to Health-Oriented Leadership, Employee Self-Care, and Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 11: 6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116733
APA StyleKlug, K., Felfe, J., & Krick, A. (2022). Does Self-Care Make You a Better Leader? A Multisource Study Linking Leader Self-Care to Health-Oriented Leadership, Employee Self-Care, and Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 6733. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116733