Perceived Health and Earnings: Evidence from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Variables Description
2.2.1. Health Assessment (H)
2.2.2. Individual Factors (I)
2.2.3. Job Characteristics (JC)
2.2.4. Work Environment (WE)
2.2.5. Macroeconomic Factors (M)
2.2.6. Earnings (E)
3. Model Specification
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.2. Regression Results
5. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables’ Group | Variable | Obs. (*) | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Health assessed | Health assessed | 43,786 | 4.003 | 0.768 | 1 (Very bad) | 5 (Very good) |
Individual factors | ||||||
Gender | Man | 43,841 | 0.504 | 0.5 | 0 | 1 |
Age | Age | 43,691 | 43.371 | 12.75 | 15 | 89 |
Hours educating children/grandchildren | Hours educating children/grandchildren | 43,850 | 0.607 | 0.928 | 0 | 8 |
Marital status | Married partner | 43,850 | 0.611 | 0.488 | 0 | 1 |
Ethnicity | Ethnicity | 5755 | 0.349 | 0.477 | 0 | 1 |
Level of education | Early childhood education | 43,689 | 0.006 | 0.076 | 0 | 1 |
Primary education | 43,689 | 0.048 | 0.213 | 0 | 1 | |
Lower secondary education | 43,689 | 0.134 | 0.34 | 0 | 1 | |
Upper-secondary education | 43,689 | 0.416 | 0.493 | 0 | 1 | |
Post-secondary education | 43,689 | 0.07 | 0.255 | 0 | 1 | |
Short cycle tertiary education | 43,689 | 0.094 | 0.292 | 0 | 1 | |
Bachelor | 43,689 | 0.131 | 0.337 | 0 | 1 | |
Master | 43,689 | 0.093 | 0.29 | 0 | 1 | |
Doctorate | 43,689 | 0.009 | 0.097 | 0 | 1 | |
Occupation | Elementary workers | 43,850 | 0.104 | 0.305 | 0 | 1 |
Plant operators | 43,850 | 0.068 | 0.251 | 0 | 1 | |
Craft | 43,850 | 0.118 | 0.322 | 0 | 1 | |
Skilled agricultural | 43,850 | 0.048 | 0.213 | 0 | 1 | |
Sales workers | 43,850 | 0.217 | 0.412 | 0 | 1 | |
Clerical | 43,850 | 0.086 | 0.281 | 0 | 1 | |
Technicians | 43,850 | 0.112 | 0.315 | 0 | 1 | |
Professionals | 43,850 | 0.177 | 0.382 | 0 | 1 | |
Managers | 43,850 | 0.063 | 0.243 | 0 | 1 | |
Job characteristics | ||||||
Company size | One employee | 41,653 | 0.126 | 0.331 | 0 | 1 |
2–9 employees | 41,653 | 0.245 | 0.43 | 0 | 1 | |
10–249 employees | 41,653 | 0.361 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 | |
Over 250 employees | 41,653 | 0.268 | 0.443 | 0 | 1 | |
Increase in hours of work since job started | Increase in hours of work | 43,475 | 2.858 | 0.661 | 1 (Increased a lot) | 5 (Decreased a lot) |
Work environment | ||||||
Good job | 35,053 | 3.917 | 1.059 | 0 | 1 | |
Conflicts are solved fairly | 34,005 | 3.895 | 1.046 | 0 | 1 | |
Fairness | 34,570 | 3.902 | 1.06 | 0 | 1 | |
Cooperation | 34,307 | 4.369 | 0.78 | 0 | 1 | |
Health or safety at risk | 43,050 | 0.251 | 0.434 | 0 | 1 | |
Health affects negatively | 43,850 | 0.264 | 0.441 | 0 | 1 | |
Health affects positively | 43,850 | 0.118 | 0.323 | 0 | 1 | |
Macroeconomic factors | ||||||
Unemployment rate | 42,839 | 11.918 | 6.513 | 0 | 1 | |
GDP per capita (PPP) | 42,839 | 30,039.37 | 12,979.35 | 9506.12 | 78,669.78 | |
Monthly earnings | Monthly earnings | 33,399 | 1346.01 | 2278.87 | 0.037 | 271,000 |
Dependent Variable: Health Assessed | Very Bad | Bad | Fair | Good | Very Good | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variables | Variable Name | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. |
Intercept | −1.089 | −5.933 *** | −4.857 *** | 2.135 *** | −0.642 | |
Individual factors (I) | ||||||
Gender (baseline: Women) | Man | −0.119 | −0.036 | −0.059 ** | −0.002 | 0.062 ** |
Age (continuous) | Age | 0.022 *** | 0.020 *** | 0.031 *** | −0.003 ** | −0.033 *** |
Having children (baseline: No children) | Children | −0.122 * | 0.004 | −0.024 ** | 0.036 *** | 0.004 |
Marital status (baseline: Not married) | Married | −0.005 | −0.090 ** | −0.030 | 0.093 *** | −0.060 ** |
Level of education (baseline: Early childhood education) | Primary education | −0.352 | −0.270 | −0.064 | 0.207 | 0.099 |
Lower secondary education | −0.309 | −0.487 ** | −0.055 | 0.239 | 0.119 | |
Upper secondary education | −0.655 | −0.606 ** | −0.073 | 0.194 | 0.230 | |
Post-secondary education | −0.577 | −0.711 *** | 0.010 | 0.132 | 0.251 | |
Short cycle tertiary education | −0.598 | −0.716 *** | −0.164 | 0.142 | 0.388 * | |
Bachelor education | −0.786 | −0.765 *** | −0.095 | 0.124 | 0.341 * | |
Master education | −1.082 ** | −0.791 *** | −0.102 | 0.067 | 0.417 ** | |
Doctorate education | 0.000 | −0.253 | −0.138 | 0.070 | 0.389 * | |
Type of occupation (baseline: Elementary workers) | Managers | 0.673 | 0.399 | −0.128 | 0.043 | −0.609 *** |
Professionals | 0.104 | −0.010 | 0.117 | −0.368 *** | −0.173 | |
Technicians | 1.073 ** | 0.117 | 0.065 | −0.473 *** | −0.042 | |
Clerical | 1.046 ** | 0.349 | 0.123 | −0.385 *** | −0.095 | |
Service and Sales workers | −0.142 | −0.079 | 0.088 | −0.388*** | 0.082 | |
Skilled agricultural | 0.000 | −0.331 | 0.196 | −0.201 | 0.433 | |
Craft | 1.024 ** | −0.490 | −0.122 | −0.023 | 0.015 | |
Job characteristics (JC) | ||||||
Company number of employees (baseline: 1 employee) | 2–9 employees | −0.590 * | −0.253 | −0.012 | −0.057 | 0.194 * |
10–249 employees | −0.380 | −0.257 | 0.025 | −0.025 | 0.136 | |
over 250 employees | −0.212 | −0.166 | 0.024 | −0.064 | 0.177 * | |
Increase in hours worked since job started (baseline: increased a lot) | Increased a little | −0.362 * | 0.052 | 0.042 | 0.036 | −0.096* |
No change | −0.087 | 0.041 | −0.063 | 0.049 | −0.034 | |
Decreased a little | −0.136 | 0.165 | −0.015 | 0.029 | −0.059 | |
Decreased a lot | 0.141 | 0.024 | −0.022 | −0.086 | 0.093 | |
Work environment (WE) | ||||||
Work environment main factors | Good job | 0.046 | −0.020 | −0.017 | 0.008 | 0.007 |
Conflicts are solved in a fair way | −0.093 * | −0.063 ** | −0.047 *** | 0.003 | 0.055 *** | |
Fairness | −0.079 * | −0.035 | −0.047 *** | −0.005 | 0.057 *** | |
Cooperation | −0.068 | 0.018 | −0.069 *** | −0.049 *** | 0.136 *** | |
Health or safety at risk (baseline: No) | Health or safety | 0.517 *** | 0.270 *** | 0.123 *** | −0.104 *** | −0.051 * |
Health affected because of work (baseline: No) | Health affected negatively | 0.362 ** | 0.538 *** | 0.500 *** | −0.085 *** | −0.495 *** |
Health affected positively | −0.385 | 0.032 | −0.062 * | −0.079 ** | 0.125 *** | |
Macroeconomic factors (M) | ||||||
Log GDP per capita (PPP) | −0.033 | 0.414 *** | 0.332 *** | −0.233 *** | −0.035 | |
GDP per capita above median | 0.470 ** | 0.105 | −0.009 | −0.013 | 0.018 | |
Monthly earnings (E) | ||||||
Log Monthly earnings | −0.128 | 0.191 | 0.250 ** | 0.058 | −0.083 | |
(Log Monthly earnings)2 | −0.009 | −0.037 ** | −0.037 *** | 0.001 | 0.019 ** | |
Interactions: Occupation & Age | ||||||
Type of Occupation × Age (baseline: Early Childhood education×Age) | Managers×Age | −0.004 | −0.007 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.013 *** |
Professionals×Age | −0.000 | 0.000 | −0.005 * | 0.010 *** | 0.005 * | |
Technicians×Age | −0.017 | −0.003 | −0.005 | 0.013 *** | 0.002 | |
Clerical×Age | −0.019 * | −0.007 | −0.005 | 0.011 *** | 0.002 | |
Sales×Age | 0.002 | 0.001 | −0.004 | 0.010 *** | −0.001 | |
Skilled Agricultural × Age | 0.000 | 0.012 | −0.004 | 0.003 | −0.010 | |
Craft×Age | −0.026 ** | 0.008 | 0.003 | 0.002 | −0.001 | |
Observations | 23,741 | 24,192 | 24,192 | 24,192 | 24,192 | |
Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) | 1116.707 | 4606.082 | 20,579.19 | 33,546.57 | 25,297.30 |
Dependent Variable: Health Assessed | Very Bad | Bad | Fair | Good | Very Good | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variables | Variable Name | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. |
Intercept | Intercept | −0.943 | −1.409 ** | −1.472 ** | −0.073 | −1.074 ** |
Individual factors (I) | ||||||
Gender (baseline: Women) | Man | −0.152 | −0.083 * | −0.083 *** | 0.027 | 0.047 ** |
Age (continuous) | Age | 0.022 *** | 0.020 *** | 0.030 *** | −0.003 * | −0.034 *** |
Having children (baseline: No children) | Children | −0.115 * | 0.002 | −0.024 ** | 0.037 *** | 0.004 |
Marital status (baseline: Not married) | Married | −0.022 | −0.098 ** | −0.039 * | 0.100 *** | −0.060 ** |
Level of education (baseline: Early childhood education) | Primary education | −0.395 | −0.320 | −0.160 | 0.217 | 0.162 |
Lower secondary education | −0.379 | −0.573 ** | −0.199 | 0.256 * | 0.214 | |
Upper secondary education | −0.719 | −0.724 *** | −0.246 | 0.240 * | 0.321 | |
Post-secondary education | −0.665 | −0.812 *** | −0.116 | 0.175 | 0.285 | |
Short cycle tertiary education | −0.658 | −0.846 *** | −0.328 * | 0.203 | 0.441 ** | |
Bachelor education | −0.884 * | −0.936 *** | −0.282 * | 0.214 | 0.392 * | |
Master education | −1.184 ** | −0.960 *** | −0.295 * | 0.149 | 0.477 ** | |
Doctorate education | 0.000 | −0.441 | −0.321 | 0.160 | 0.436 ** | |
Type of occupation (baseline: Elementary workers) | Managers | 0.576 | 0.321 | −0.190 | 0.079 | −0.585 ** |
Professionals | 0.052 | −0.023 | 0.106 | −0.364 *** | −0.170 | |
Technicians | 1.023 ** | 0.098 | 0.049 | −0.469 *** | −0.031 | |
Clerical | 1.061 ** | 0.371 | 0.127 | −0.382 ** | −0.096 | |
Service and Sales workers | −0.099 | −0.016 | 0.115 | −0.401 *** | 0.078 | |
Skilled agricultural | 0.000 | −0.319 | 0.195 | −0.190 | 0.410 | |
Craft | 0.950 ** | −0.551 * | −0.161 | −0.006 | 0.019 | |
Job characteristics (JC) | ||||||
Company number of employees (baseline: 1 employee) | 2–9 employees | −0.557 * | −0.245 | −0.019 | −0.055 | 0.201 * |
10–249 employees | −0.390 | −0.267 * | 0.001 | −0.019 | 0.157 | |
over 250 employees | −0.218 | −0.167 | 0.004 | −0.072 | 0.210 ** | |
Increase in hours worked since job started (baseline: increased a lot) | Increased a little | −0.369 * | 0.051 | 0.044 | 0.032 | −0.096 * |
No change | −0.096 | 0.039 | −0.055 | 0.049 | −0.043 | |
Decreased a little | −0.115 | 0.203 | 0.015 | 0.003 | −0.061 | |
Decreased a lot | 0.237 | 0.130 | 0.044 | −0.138 * | 0.090 | |
Work environment (WE) | ||||||
Work environment main factors | Good job | 0.047 | −0.023 | −0.022* | 0.009 | 0.010 |
Conflicts are solved in a fair way | −0.100 ** | −0.069 ** | −0.049 *** | 0.004 | 0.055 *** | |
Fairness | −0.071 | −0.029 | −0.047 *** | −0.007 | 0.059 *** | |
Cooperation | −0.069 | 0.022 | −0.062 *** | −0.051 *** | 0.132 *** | |
Health or safety at risk (baseline: No) | Health or safety | 0.512 *** | 0.261 *** | 0.127 *** | −0.097 *** | −0.066 ** |
Health affected because of work (baseline: No) | Health affected negatively | 0.334 ** | 0.535 *** | 0.507 *** | −0.084 *** | −0.510 *** |
Health affected positively | −0.352 | 0.066 | −0.055 | −0.099 *** | 0.144 *** | |
Macroeconomic factors (M) | ||||||
Unemployment rate | −0.018 * | −0.016 ** | −0.020 *** | 0.005 ** | 0.015 *** | |
Unemployment above median | 0.044 | 0.087 | 0.063 ** | −0.115 *** | 0.071 ** | |
Monthly earnings (E) | ||||||
Log Monthly earnings | −0.269 ** | 0.025 | 0.274 ** | 0.090 | −0.187 * | |
(Log Monthly earnings)2 | 0.013 | −0.011 | −0.031 *** | −0.010 | 0.030 *** | |
Country factors | ||||||
Country dummies | No | No | No | No | No | |
Interactions: Occupation & Age | ||||||
Type of Occupation×Age (baseline: Early childhood education×Age) | Managers×Age | −0.004 | −0.007 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.013 ** |
Professionals×Age | −0.000 | −0.000 | −0.005 * | 0.011 *** | 0.005 * | |
Technicians×Age | −0.016 | −0.003 | −0.005 | 0.013 *** | 0.002 | |
Clerical×Age | −0.019 * | −0.008 | −0.005 | 0.011 *** | 0.002 | |
Sales × Age | 0.002 | −0.000 | −0.004 * | 0.010 *** | −0.001 | |
Skilled Agricultural × Age | 0.000 | 0.013 | −0.003 | 0.003 | −0.010 | |
Craft × Age | −0.025 ** | 0.009 | 0.003 | 0.001 | −0.001 | |
Observations | 23,741.000 | 24,192.000 | 24,192.000 | 24,192.000 | 24,192.000 | |
Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) | 1124.525 | 4640.259 | 20,573.364 | 33,594.765 | 25,154.170 |
Dependent Variable: Health Assessed | Very Bad | Bad | Fair | Good | Very Good | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variables | Variable Name | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. | Coef. |
Intercept | Intercept | |||||
Individual factors (I) | ||||||
Gender (baseline: Women) | Man | −0.143 | −0.022 | −0.042 * | −0.020 | 0.072 *** |
Age (continuous) | Age | 0.027 *** | 0.022 *** | 0.029 *** | −0.002 | −0.034 *** |
Having children (baseline: No children) | Children | −0.133 ** | 0.007 | −0.016 | 0.035 *** | −0.003 |
Marital status (baseline: Not married) | Married | −0.022 | −0.087 ** | −0.026 | 0.085 *** | −0.045 ** |
Level of education (baseline: Early childhood education) | Primary education | −0.385 | −0.243 | 0.009 | 0.141 | 0.180 |
Lower secondary education | −0.338 | −0.441 ** | −0.101 | 0.286 * | 0.112 | |
Upper secondary education | −0.691 | −0.617 ** | −0.123 | 0.266 * | 0.194 | |
Post-secondary education | −0.319 | −0.695 ** | −0.161 | 0.208 | 0.287 | |
Short cycle tertiary education | −0.516 | −0.653 ** | −0.232 | 0.222 | 0.337 * | |
Bachelor education | −0.752 | −0.775 *** | −0.165 | 0.195 | 0.313 | |
Master education | −1.027 | −0.779 *** | −0.184 | 0.146 | 0.387 * | |
Doctorate education | 0.000 | −0.238 | −0.224 | 0.129 | 0.385 * | |
Type of occupation (baseline: Elementary workers) | Managers | 0.736 | 0.516 | −0.251 | −0.016 | −0.456 ** |
Professionals | 0.040 | 0.028 | 0.123 | −0.336 *** | −0.231 ** | |
Technicians | 1.198 ** | 0.116 | −0.019 | −0.444 *** | −0.034 | |
Clerical | 1.210 ** | 0.424 | 0.116 | −0.356 ** | −0.143 | |
Service and Sales workers | 0.011 | −0.052 | 0.081 | −0.339 *** | 0.021 | |
Skilled agricultural | 0.000 | −0.390 | 0.196 | −0.266 | 0.448 | |
Craft | 1.232 ** | −0.475 | −0.186 | −0.026 | 0.058 | |
Job characteristics (JC) | ||||||
Company number of employees (baseline: 1 employee) | 2–9 employees | −0.629 * | −0.212 | −0.032 | −0.016 | 0.144 |
10–249 employees | −0.413 | −0.226 | −0.033 | 0.012 | 0.119 | |
over 250 employees | −0.248 | −0.113 | −0.011 | −0.039 | 0.152 | |
Increase in hours worked since job started (baseline: Increased a lot) | Increased a little | −0.415 * | 0.038 | 0.012 | 0.028 | −0.057 |
No change | −0.130 | 0.053 | −0.104 ** | 0.032 | 0.020 | |
Decreased a little | −0.123 | 0.178 | −0.034 | 0.034 | −0.050 | |
Decreased a lot | 0.082 | 0.033 | −0.006 | −0.069 | 0.063 | |
Work environment (WE) | ||||||
Work environment main factors | Good job | 0.065 | −0.005 | −0.023 ** | 0.008 | 0.008 |
Conflicts are solved in a fair way | −0.105 ** | −0.079 *** | −0.043 *** | 0.001 | 0.057*** | |
Fairness | −0.077 * | −0.037 | −0.047 *** | −0.007 | 0.064 *** | |
Cooperation | −0.087 | 0.018 | −0.075 *** | −0.049 *** | 0.140 *** | |
Health or safety at risk (baseline: No) | Health or safety | 0.523 *** | 0.271 *** | 0.134 *** | −0.114 *** | −0.044 |
Health affected because of work (baseline: No) | Health affected negatively | 0.365 ** | 0.562 *** | 0.491 *** | −0.088 *** | −0.494 *** |
Health affected positively | −0.376 | 0.043 | −0.068 * | −0.081 ** | 0.139 *** | |
Monthly earnings (E) | ||||||
Log Monthly earnings | −0.235 | 0.188 | 0.161 | 0.041 | −0.037 | |
(Log Monthly earnings)2 | −0.002 | −0.037 ** | −0.026 ** | 0.003 | 0.013 * | |
Country factors | ||||||
Country dummies | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | |
Interactions: Occupation & Age | ||||||
Type of Occupation×Age (baseline: Early childhood education×Age) | Managers×Age | −0.007 | −0.009 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.011 ** |
Professionals×Age | −0.002 | −0.001 | −0.006 ** | 0.010 *** | 0.006 ** | |
Technicians×Age | −0.021 * | −0.003 | −0.003 | 0.012 *** | 0.003 | |
Clerical×Age | −0.023 ** | −0.009 | −0.004 | 0.010 *** | 0.003 | |
Sales×Age | −0.001 | 0.000 | −0.003 | 0.009 *** | 0.000 | |
Skilled Agricultural × Age | 0.000 | 0.014 | −0.004 | 0.004 | −0.010 | |
Craft × Age | −0.030 *** | 0.008 | 0.004 | 0.002 | −0.002 | |
Observations | 17,888 | 24,736 | 24,736 | 24,736 | 24,736 | |
Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) | 1253.438 | 4939.483 | 20,830.773 | 34,231.084 | 25,238.926 |
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Erro-Garcés, A.; Aramendia-Muneta, M.E.; Errea, M.; Cabases-Hita, J.M. Perceived Health and Earnings: Evidence from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010594
Erro-Garcés A, Aramendia-Muneta ME, Errea M, Cabases-Hita JM. Perceived Health and Earnings: Evidence from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(1):594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010594
Chicago/Turabian StyleErro-Garcés, Amaya, Maria Elena Aramendia-Muneta, María Errea, and Juan M. Cabases-Hita. 2022. "Perceived Health and Earnings: Evidence from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 1: 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010594
APA StyleErro-Garcés, A., Aramendia-Muneta, M. E., Errea, M., & Cabases-Hita, J. M. (2022). Perceived Health and Earnings: Evidence from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010594