Depressive Symptoms in Swiss University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Correlates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Population and Data
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Outcome Measure: Depressive Symptoms
2.3.2. Study Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
3.2. Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms among University Students during the Pandemic and among the General Population before the Pandemic
3.3. Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms among University Students
4. Discussion
4.1. Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms
4.2. Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms among University Students
4.3. Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | SHS | HES-C | p | HES-C Spring | HES-C Autumn | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHQ-9 (%) | <0.001 | 0.760 | ||||
Minimal (0–4) | 65.5 | 31.1 | 31.5 | 30.3 | ||
Mild (5–9) | 25.9 | 41.6 | 41.4 | 42.1 | ||
Moderate (10–14) | 5.9 | 17.9 | 18.1 | 17.4 | ||
Moderately severe (15–19) | 1.9 | 7.1 | 6.9 | 7.7 | ||
Severe (20–27) | 0.8 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.6 | ||
Depressive symptoms (%) | <0.001 | 0.740 | ||||
PHQ-9 ≥ 10 | 8.6 | 27.2 | 27.1 | 27.7 | ||
Gender (%) | <0.001 | 0.611 | ||||
Women | 50.6 | 69.5 | 69.8 | 69.0 | ||
Men | 49.4 | 30.5 | 30.2 | 31.0 | ||
Age group (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
<21 years | 7.3 | 5.4 | 2.5 | 11.0 | ||
21–30 years | 14.8 | 80.4 | 81.9 | 77.5 | ||
31–40 years | 16.8 | 11.0 | 12.2 | 8.7 | ||
41–50 years | 17.5 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 2.6 | ||
>50 years | 43.6 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | ||
Education (%) | <0.001 | 1.000 | ||||
Primary | 18.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
Secondary | 47.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | ||
Tertiary | 33.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
Social status (mean ± SD) | - | 5.64 ± 1.65 | 5.64 ± 1.64 | 5.64 ± 1.67 | 0.447 | |
Nationality (%) | - | |||||
Swiss | - | 72.6 | 73.8 | 69.7 | 0.073 | |
Double citizen | - | 18.6 | 17.9 | 20.4 | ||
Foreign nationality | - | 8.8 | 8.3 | 9.9 | ||
Self-efficacy (mean ± SD) | - | 3.81 ± 0.61 | 3.83 ± 0.62 | 3.77 ± 0.61 | 0.006 | |
Resilience (%) | - | 0.170 | ||||
Low | - | 20.6 | 19.8 | 22.4 | ||
Moderate | - | 49.2 | 49.2 | 49.1 | ||
High | - | 30.2 | 31.0 | 28.5 | ||
Social support (%) | - | 0.003 | ||||
Poor | - | 16.7 | 15.3 | 19.6 | ||
Moderate | - | 59.9 | 60.0 | 59.9 | ||
Strong | - | 23.4 | 24.7 | 20.5 | ||
Health concerns (%) | - | 0.337 | ||||
No | - | 55.9 | 56.5 | 54.6 | ||
Yes | - | 44.1 | 43.5 | 45.4 | ||
Family health concerns (%) | - | <0.001 | ||||
No | - | 8.1 | 4.9 | 15.3 | ||
Yes | - | 91.9 | 95.1 | 84.7 | ||
Family financial concerns (%) | - | <0.001 | ||||
No | - | 40.7 | 38.1 | 46.6 | ||
Yes | - | 59.3 | 61.9 | 53.5 | ||
Binge drinking (%) | - | <0.001 | ||||
No | - | 65.3 | 69.3 | 57.3 | ||
Yes | - | 34.8 | 30.7 | 42.7 | ||
Cannabis consumption (%) | - | 0.604 | ||||
No | - | 88.5 | 88.7 | 88.1 | ||
Yes | - | 11.5 | 11.3 | 11.9 | ||
Physical activity (%) | - | |||||
No | - | 22.1 | 20.2 | 26.5 | 0.001 | |
Yes | - | 77.9 | 79.8 | 73.5 | ||
Sample size | 22,134 | 3571 | 2363 | 1208 |
Title | Women 21–30 | p | Men 21–30 | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHQ-9 category (%) | SHS 2017 | HES-C 2020 | <0.001 | SHS 2017 | HES-C 2020 | <0.001 |
Minimal (0–4) | 51.8 (48.3–55.3) | 26.2 (24.1–28.4) | 66.3 (62.6–69.8) | 37.4 (33.9–41.1) | ||
Mild (5–9) | 37.3 (34.0–40.8) | 43.0 (40.6–45.4) | 25.2 (22.0–28.7) | 37.8 (34.3–41.5) | ||
Moderate (10–14) | 7.9 (6.3–9.8) | 20.6 (18.7–22.6) | 5.6 (4.1–7.7) | 16.5 (13.9–19.4) | ||
Moderately severe (15–19) | 2.3 (1.4–3.8) | 7.8 (6.6–9.2) | 2.2 (1.3–3.7) | 6.3 (4.7–8.3) | ||
Severe (20–27) | 0.7 (0.3–1.6) | 2.4 (1.7–3.3) | 0.7 (0.3–1.6) | 2.0 (1.1–3.3) | ||
Depressive symptoms (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
PHQ-9 ≥ 10 | 10.9 (8.9–13.2) | 30.8 (28.6–33.0) | 8.5 (6.6–11.0) | 24.8 (21.7–28.1) | ||
Sample size | 1135 | 1625 | 893 | 703 |
Title | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | OR | p | 95% CI | OR | p | 95% CI |
Gender (Ref = Men) | ||||||
Women | 1.24 | 0.021 | 1.03–1.49 | 1.48 | 0.012 | 1.09–2.02 |
Age (years) | 0.97 | <0.001 | 0.96–0.99 | 0.98 | 0.117 | 0.96–1.00 |
Social status | 0.89 | <0.001 | 0.85–0.94 | 0.91 | 0.036 | 0.84–0.99 |
Nationality (Ref = Swiss) | ||||||
Double citizen | 1.37 | 0.003 | 1.11–1.69 | 1.48 | 0.020 | 1.06–2.07 |
Foreign nationality | 1.39 | 0.022 | 1.05–1.85 | 1.81 | 0.022 | 1.09–3.02 |
Self-efficacy | 0.28 | <0.001 | 0.24–0.33 | 0.37 | <0.001 | 0.28–0.48 |
Resilience (Ref = high [17,18,19,20]) | ||||||
Low (4–13) | 4.91 | <0.001 | 3.86–6.25 | 2.28 | <0.001 | 1.52–3.43 |
Moderate (14–16) | 1.89 | <0.001 | 1.53–2.35 | 1.18 | 0.325 | 0.85–1.62 |
Social support (Ref = strong [12,13,14]) | ||||||
Poor (3–8) | 4.35 | <0.001 | 3.34–5.66 | 2.35 | <0.001 | 1.49–3.70 |
Moderate (9–11) | 1.55 | <0.001 | 1.24–1.94 | 1.22 | 0.236 | 0.88–1.70 |
Health concerns (Ref = No) | ||||||
Yes | 1.56 | <0.001 | 1.33–1.84 | 1.53 | 0.002 | 1.17–2.00 |
Family health concerns (Ref = No) | ||||||
Yes | 1.21 | 0.235 | 0.88 – 1.65 | 1.09 | 0.746 | 0.64–1.88 |
Family financial concerns (Ref = No) | ||||||
Yes | 1.51 | <0.001 | 1.28–1.80 | 1.36 | 0.033 | 1.02–1.79 |
Binge drinking (Ref = No) | ||||||
Yes | 1.39 | 0.001 | 1.15–1.68 | 1.42 | 0.016 | 1.07–1.88 |
Cannabis consumption (Ref = No) | ||||||
Yes | 1.29 | 0.040 | 1.01–1.65 | 0.92 | 0.673 | 0.62–1.36 |
Physical activity (Ref = Yes) | ||||||
No | 1.46 | 0.002 | 1.16–1.85 | 1.41 | 0.024 | 1.05–1.91 |
Constant | 0.38 | <0.001 | 0.35–0.41 | 0.06 | <0.001 | 0.03–0.11 |
Sample size | 3412–3569 | 3209 |
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Volken, T.; Zysset, A.; Amendola, S.; Klein Swormink, A.; Huber, M.; von Wyl, A.; Dratva, J. Depressive Symptoms in Swiss University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Correlates. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041458
Volken T, Zysset A, Amendola S, Klein Swormink A, Huber M, von Wyl A, Dratva J. Depressive Symptoms in Swiss University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Correlates. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(4):1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041458
Chicago/Turabian StyleVolken, Thomas, Annina Zysset, Simone Amendola, Anthony Klein Swormink, Marion Huber, Agnes von Wyl, and Julia Dratva. 2021. "Depressive Symptoms in Swiss University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Their Correlates" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 4: 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041458