Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Theoretical Background
1.2. Environmental Risk Factors and Depressive Symptoms
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Outcome Measures
2.3. Comparison Group
2.4. Risk Factors
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Information
3.2. CES-DC Depressive Symptom Scores
3.3. Correlations of Risk Factors on LBC’s Depressive Symptoms
3.4. Difference in the Correlations of Risk Factors on Depressive Symptoms between LBC and NLBC
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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LBC Total N = 824 N (%) | NLBC Total N = 698 N (%) | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Mean, SD) | 12.71 (0.796) | 12.63 (0.833) | 0.047 | |
Gender | 0.648 | |||
Male | 470 (57.0%) | 390 (55.9%) | ||
Female | 354 (43.0%) | 308 (44.1%) | ||
Father’s education | 0.071 | |||
1 = primary school | 155 (18.7%) | 117 (16.9%) | ||
2 = middle school | 441 (53.3%) | 346 (50.0%) | ||
3 = high school or technical secondary school | 181 (21.9%) | 163 (23.6%) | ||
4 = junior college | 25 (3.0%) | 38 (5.5%) | ||
5 = college and above | 25 (3.0%) | 28 (4.0%) | ||
Mother’s education | <0.0005 | |||
1 = primary school | 240 (29.4%) | 170 (24.5%) | ||
2 = middle school | 430 (52.6%) | 336 (48.4%) | ||
3 = high school or technical secondary school | 115 (14.1%) | 135 (19.5%) | ||
4 = junior college | 17 (2.1%) | 26 (3.7%) | ||
5 = college and above | 15 (1.8%) | 27 (3.9%) | ||
Family income/month (USD) | <0.0005 | |||
1 = less than 72.57 | 4 (0.5%) | 6 (0.9%) | ||
2 = 72.57–145.14 | 24 (3.1%) | 25 (3.7%) | ||
3 = 145.14–290.28 | 79 (10.1%) | 68 (10.2%) | ||
4 = 290.28–580.55 | 194 (24.7%) | 203 (30.4%) | ||
5 = 580.55–870.83 | 172 (21.9%) | 181 (27.1%) | ||
6 = 870.83–1161.10 | 175 (22.3%) | 115 (17.2%) | ||
7 = more than 1161.10 | 137 (17.5%) | 69 (10.3%) | ||
Perceived SES | 0.135 | |||
1 | 9 (1.1%) | 1(0.1%) | ||
2 | 16 (1.9%) | 7 (1.0%) | ||
3 | 72 (8.7%) | 52 (7.5%) | ||
4 | 151 (18.2%) | 116 (16.7%) | ||
5 | 308 (37.2%) | 264 (38.0%) | ||
6 | 163 (19.7%) | 132 (19.0%) | ||
7 | 68 (8.2%) | 73 (10.5%) | ||
8 | 31 (3.7%) | 38 (5.5%) | ||
9 | 6 (0.7%) | 7 (1.0%) | ||
10 | 4 (0.5%) | 4 (0.6%) |
B | SE | OR | 95% CI for OR | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||
Independent variables | ||||||
Peer victimization | 0.62 * | 0.29 | 1.86 | 1.06 | 3.28 | 0.032 |
Perceived discrimination | 0.26 * | 0.13 | 1.30 | 1.02 | 1.66 | 0.036 |
Stressful life events | 1.77 *** | 0.21 | 5.86 | 3.86 | 8.90 | 0.000 |
Female | 0.41 * | 0.18 | 1.51 | 1.07 | 2.15 | 0.021 |
Family income | –0.03 | 0.07 | 0.97 | 0.86 | 1.11 | 0.692 |
Father’s education | –0.07 | 0.12 | 0.93 | 0.74 | 1.17 | 0.535 |
Mother’s education | 0.09 | 0.12 | 1.10 | 0.86 | 1.39 | 0.452 |
Perceived SES | –0.12 | 0.07 | 0.89 | 0.78 | 1.02 | 0.092 |
Intercept | −4.07 *** | 0.68 | 0.000 | |||
χ2 | 205.12 *** | |||||
Nagelkerke R2 | 0.33 | |||||
Observations | 740 | |||||
Highest VIF | 1.45 | |||||
Mean VIF | 1.38 |
B | SE | OR | 95% CI for OR | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||
Independent variables | ||||||
PV | 0.75 * | 0.31 | 2.11 | 1.16 | 3.83 | 0.014 |
PD | 0.33 * | 0.13 | 1.39 | 1.08 | 1.79 | 0.011 |
SLE | 1.72 *** | 0.22 | 5.57 | 3.63 | 8.55 | 0.000 |
PSD | 0.025 | 0.06 | 1.03 | 0.92 | 1.14 | 0.65 |
PV * PSD | 0.44 ** | 0.16 | 1.55 | 1.13 | 2.12 | 0.006 |
PD * PSD | 0.04 | 0.07 | 1.04 | 0.90 | 1.19 | 0.63 |
SLE * PSD | –0.01 | 0.12 | 0.99 | 0.78 | 1.26 | 0.93 |
Female | 0.40 * | 0.18 | 1.49 | 1.04 | 2.14 | 0.031 |
Family income | –0.05 | 0.07 | 0.96 | 0.83 | 1.09 | 0.51 |
Father’s education | –0.03 | 0.12 | 0.97 | 0.77 | 1.22 | 0.77 |
Mother’s education | 0.07 | 0.12 | 1.07 | 0.84 | 1.37 | 0.58 |
Perceived SES | –0.13 | 0.07 | 0.88 | 0.77 | 1.02 | 0.08 |
Intercept | 1.21 * | 0.47 | 0.01 | |||
χ2 | 208.18 *** | |||||
Nagelkerke R2 | 0.342 | |||||
Observations | 712 |
B | S.E. | OR | 95% CI for OR | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||
Independent variables | ||||||
Peer victimization | 1.71 *** | 0.324 | 5.55 | 2.94 | 10.46 | 0.000 |
Stressful life events | 1.29 *** | 0.20 | 3.65 | 2.46 | 5.41 | 0.000 |
LBC | 0.28 * | 0.13 | 1.32 | 1.01 | 1.71 | 0.039 |
Peer victimization * LBC | –0.96 * | 0.43 | 0.38 | 0.17 | 0.89 | 0.025 |
Stressful life events * LBC | 0.58 * | 0.29 | 1.78 | 1.01 | 3.15 | 0.046 |
Female | 0.47 *** | 0.13 | 1.60 | 1.24 | 2.06 | 0.000 |
Family income | –0.04 | 0.05 | 0.96 | 0.87 | 1.06 | 0.426 |
Father’s education | –0.01 | 0.08 | 1.00 | 0.85 | 1.17 | 0.954 |
Mother’s education | 0.04 | 0.08 | 1.04 | 0.88 | 1.23 | 0.636 |
Perceived SES | –0.09 | 0.05 | 0.91 | 0.83 | 1.01 | 0.066 |
Intercept | 0.68 * | 0.33 | 0.037 | |||
χ2 | 368.56 *** | |||||
Nagelkerke R2 | 0.32 | |||||
Observations | 1370 |
OR | 95% CI for OR | p Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Peer victimization | LBC | 2.13 | 1.22 | 3.70 | 0.0007 |
NLBC | 5.55 | 2.94 | 10.46 | <0.0001 | |
Stressful life events | LBC | 6.51 | 4.30 | 9.84 | <0.0001 |
NLBC | 3.65 | 2.46 | 5.41 | <0.0001 |
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Zhang, X.; Ray, S.A.; Hou, W.; Liu, X. Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10873. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010873
Zhang X, Ray SA, Hou W, Liu X. Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(20):10873. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010873
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Xiaoqing, Sharon A. Ray, Wei Hou, and Xia Liu. 2021. "Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 20: 10873. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010873
APA StyleZhang, X., Ray, S. A., Hou, W., & Liu, X. (2021). Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(20), 10873. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010873