Atmospheric Behaviour of Polycyclic and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Water-Soluble Inorganic Ions in Winter in Kirishima, a Typical Japanese Commercial City
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. PM2.5 Sampling
2.2. PAH, NPAH, and WSII Analyses and Chemical Compositions
2.3. Data Analysis
2.3.1. Meteorological Conditions
2.3.2. Cation Equivalent (CE), Anion Equivalent (AE), and Non-Sea Salt (nss-) WSIIs
2.3.3. Backward Trajectory
2.3.4. Health Risk Assessment
2.3.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Concentrations of PAHs, NPAHs, and WSIIs
3.2. Composition of PAHs, NPAHs, and WSIIs
3.3. Potential Emission Sources
3.4. Backward Trajectory Analysis
3.5. Health Risk Assessment
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Species | Abbreviation | Minimum | Median | Maximum | Average ± SD a |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAHs (ng/m3) | |||||
Fluoranthene | FR | 0.05 | 0.23 | 0.72 | 0.31 ± 0.20 |
Pyrene | Pyr | 0.04 | 0.14 | 0.46 | 0.18 ± 0.11 |
Benz[a]anthracene | BaA | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.13 | 0.06 ± 0.03 |
Chrysene | Chr | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.22 | 0.09 ± 0.05 |
Benzo[b]fluoranthene | BbF | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.48 | 0.19 ± 0.12 |
Benzo[k]fluoranthene | BkF | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 0.07 ± 0.04 |
Benzo[a]pyrene | BaP | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.19 | 0.09 ± 0.05 |
Benzo[ghi]perylene | BgPe | 0.06 | 0.18 | 0.38 | 0.18 ± 0.09 |
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene | IDP | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.33 | 0.16 ± 0.08 |
Total PAHs | ƩPAHs | 0.36 | 1.07 | 2.90 | 1.32 ± 0.71 |
NPAHs (pg/m3) | |||||
1-Nitropyrene | 1-NP | 0.31 | 1.69 | 3.87 | 1.77 ± 1.02 |
2-Nitropyrene | 2-NP | 0.14 | 0.48 | 0.86 | 0.46 ± 0.25 |
2-Nitrofluoranthene | 2-NFR | 1.53 | 7.40 | 17.7 | 7.75 ± 4.59 |
Total NPAHs | ƩNPAHs | 2.12 | 9.88 | 22.3 | 9.98 ± 5.75 |
WSIIs (μg/m3) | |||||
Sodium | Na+ | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.15 | 0.07 ± 0.03 |
Ammonium | NH4+ | 0.54 | 1.30 | 2.64 | 1.35 ± 0.59 |
Potassium | K+ | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.22 | 0.11 ± 0.06 |
Calcium | Ca2+ | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.24 | 0.11 ± 0.04 |
Magnesium | Mg2+ | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.02 ± 0.01 |
Chloride | Cl− | <LOD b | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.04 ± 0.02 |
Nitrate | NO3− | <LOD b | 0.19 | 0.76 | 0.28 ± 0.23 |
Sulfate | SO42− | 1.14 | 3.49 | 7.80 | 3.78 ± 1.77 |
Total WSIIs | ƩWSIIs | 1.96 | 5.31 | 11.4 | 5.74 ± 2.59 |
Ratio Values a | Coal Burning | Traffic Emission | |
---|---|---|---|
[FR]/([FR] + [Pyr]) | 0.61 (0.50–0.74) | >0.5 b | 0.4–0.5 b |
[BaA]/[([BaA]/[Chr]) | 0.41 (0.34–0.52) | >0.35 c | 0.2–0.35 c |
[BbF]/([BbF] + [BkF]) | 0.74 (0.72–0.76) | 0.78–0.95 c | 0.52–0.60 c |
[BaP]/[BgPe] | 0.57 (0.32–0.90) | >0.6 d | <0.6 d |
[IDP]/([IDP] + [BgPe]) | 0.48 (0.34–0.58) | >0.5 e | 0.2–0.5 e |
[1-NP]/[Pyr] | 0.008 (0.005–0.019) | 0.001 f | 0.36 f |
[NO3−]/[SO42−] | 0.11 (0 h–0.32) | <1.0 g | ≥1.0 g |
Ratio Values a | PM2.5 b | Sea Salt b | |
---|---|---|---|
[SO42−]/[Na+] | 14.5 (3.28–28.8) | 14.2 | 0.25 |
[K+]/[Na+] | 1.12 (0.37–4.11) | 1.26 | 0.037 |
[Ca2+]/[Na+] | 1.08 (0.41–2.27) | 1.11 | 0.038 |
[Mg2+]/[Na+] | 0.26 (0.10–0.66) | 0.54 | 0.12 |
Species a | TEF b | Minimum | Median | Maximum | Average ± SD c |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FR | 0.001 | 0.05 | 0.23 | 0.72 | 0.31 ± 0.20 |
Pyr | 0.001 | 0.04 | 0.14 | 0.46 | 0.18 ± 0.11 |
BaA | 0.1 | 1.18 | 4.80 | 12.7 | 5.75 ± 2.88 |
Chr | 0.01 | 0.16 | 0.59 | 2.15 | 0.87 ± 0.55 |
BbF | 0.1 | 3.73 | 15.8 | 48.0 | 18.7 ± 12.1 |
BkF | 0.1 | 1.28 | 5.65 | 17.3 | 6.65 ± 4.28 |
BaP | 1 | 19.7 | 85.6 | 191 | 90.9 ± 45.8 |
BgPe | 0.01 | 0.58 | 1.79 | 3.80 | 1.82 ± 0.95 |
IDP | 0.1 | 4.14 | 15.0 | 33.4 | 16.3 ± 8.11 |
1-NP | 0.1 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.39 | 0.18 ± 0.10 |
2-NP | - d | ||||
2-NFR | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.37 | 0.88 | 0.39 ± 0.23 |
ƩBaPeq | 31.2 | 135 | 302 | 142 ± 73.8 |
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Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.; Wang, Y.; Bai, P.; Yamauchi, M.; Chohji, T.; Zhang, L.; et al. Atmospheric Behaviour of Polycyclic and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Water-Soluble Inorganic Ions in Winter in Kirishima, a Typical Japanese Commercial City. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020688
Yang L, Zhou Q, Zhang H, Zhang X, Xing W, Wang Y, Bai P, Yamauchi M, Chohji T, Zhang L, et al. Atmospheric Behaviour of Polycyclic and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Water-Soluble Inorganic Ions in Winter in Kirishima, a Typical Japanese Commercial City. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(2):688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020688
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Lu, Quanyu Zhou, Hao Zhang, Xuan Zhang, Wanli Xing, Yan Wang, Pengchu Bai, Masahito Yamauchi, Tetsuji Chohji, Lulu Zhang, and et al. 2021. "Atmospheric Behaviour of Polycyclic and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Water-Soluble Inorganic Ions in Winter in Kirishima, a Typical Japanese Commercial City" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 2: 688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020688