Health-Related Quality of Life among Rural-Urban Migrants Living in Dhaka Slums: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Bangladesh
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Sites
2.3. Participants and Selection Procedures
2.4. Study Instruments
2.4.1. Socio-Demographics
2.4.2. Living Environment (Contrasting of the Present Urban and Former Rural Dwelling Status)
2.4.3. Occupation-Related Variables
2.4.4. Short-Form Health Survey (SF-12)
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. General Profile of Participants
3.2. HRQoL
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Recommendations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | n (%) |
---|---|
Age (Mean ± SD) | 44.8 ± 12.7 |
Sex | |
Male | 428 (45.8) |
Female | 507 (54.2) |
Marital status | |
Married | 839 (89.7) |
Divorced/widowed | 65 (7.0) |
Separated | 17 (1.8) |
Never married | 14 (1.5) |
Education level | |
No education | 477 (51.0) |
Primary school | 295 (31.6) |
Secondary school | 146 (15.6) |
Higher secondary school | 17 (1.8) |
Duration of migration | |
1–5 years | 104 (11.1) |
6–10 years | 154 (16.5) |
11–15 years | 122 (13.0) |
15–20 years | 164 (17.5) |
>20 years | 391 (41.8) |
Source of income | |
Job | 127 (13.6) |
Self-employed | 158 (16.9) |
Daily wager | 575 (61.5) |
Unemployed | 57 (6.1) |
Other | 18 (1.9) |
Reasons for migration | |
For new job opportunity | 395 (42.2) |
For education | 4 (0.4) |
For family | 466 (49.8) |
For eviction | 4 (0.4) |
Other reasons | 66 (7.1) |
Working hours | |
Not working | 377 (40.3) |
≤8 h | 287 (30.7) |
>8 h | 271 (29.0) |
Comparing housing environment (current vs. rural) | |
Worse | 508 (54.3) |
Same as before | 79 (8.4) |
Better | 348 (37.2) |
Comparing toilet (current vs. rural) | |
Worse | 366 (39.1) |
Same as before | 84 (9.0) |
Better | 485 (51.9) |
Comparing water supply (current vs. rural) | |
Worse | 542 (58.0) |
Same as before | 65 (7.0) |
Better | 328 (35.1) |
Comparing housing space (current vs. rural) | |
Worse | 780 (83.4) |
Same as before | 41 (4.4) |
Better | 114 (12.2) |
Work-related risk in the current residence | |
High | 803 (85.9) |
Moderate | 83 (8.9) |
Not significant | 49 (5.2) |
Work-related stress in the current residence | |
High | 781 (83.5) |
Moderate | 73 (7.8) |
Not significant | 81 (8.7) |
Variables | Mean (SD) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. PF | 67.83 (32.22) | — | 0.319 **f | 0.422 **f | 0.026 f | 0.266 **f | 0.313 **f | 0.282 **f | 0.419 **f | 0.673 **f | 0.461 **f |
2. RP | 50.05 (46.88) | 0.294 **m | — | 0.470 **f | 0.022 f | 0.287 **f | 0.494 **f | 0.269 **f | 0.289 **f | 0.793 **f | 0.507 **f |
3. BP | 75.43 (30.65) | 0.497 **m | 0.422 **m | — | 0.002 f | 0.260 **f | 0.331 **f | 0.226 **f | 0.273 **f | 0.736 **f | 0.401 **f |
4. GHP | 36.28 (28.71) | 0.026 m | 0.008 m | −0.001 m | — | −0.053 f | −0.026 f | −0.013 f | 0.013 f | 0.330 **f | −0.028 f |
5. SF | 76.63 (29.53) | 0.346 **m | 0.362 **m | 0.452 **m | −0.017 m | — | 0.256 **f | 0.357 **f | 0.382 **f | 0.315 **f | 0.675 **f |
6. RE | 55.67 (44.98) | 0.173 **m | 0.515 **m | 0.273 **m | −0.012 m | 0.245 **m | — | 0.279 **f | 0.243 **f | 0.470 **f | 0.729 **f |
7. GMH | 56.36 (23.11) | 0.244 **m | 0.289 **m | 0.311 **m | −0.123 *m | 0.346 **m | 0.217 **m | — | 0.436 **f | 0.312 **f | 0.669 **f |
8. VEF | 54.42 (32.49) | 0.428 **m | 0.234 **m | 0.276 **m | −0.034 m | 0.299 **m | 0.186 **m | 0.381 **m | — | 0.395 **f | 0.710 **f |
9. PCS | 57.40 (22.73) | 0.681 **m | 0.772 **m | 0.726 **m | 0.344 **m | 0.456 **m | 0.418 **m | 0.300 **m | 0.354 **m | — | 0.552 **f |
10. MCS | 60.77 (22.51) | 0.427 **m | 0.548 **m | 0.474 **m | −0.055 m | 0.663 **m | 0.725 **m | 0.617 **m | 0.664 **m | 0.577 **m | — |
Variables | Mean (SD) | Unadjusted Estimates | Adjusted Estimates | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | t | β | p-Value | B | SE | t | β | p-Value | ||
Age | — — | −0.66 | 0.05 | −12.14 | −0.37 | <0.001 | −0.70 | 0.07 | −9.55 | −0.39 | <0.001 |
Sex | |||||||||||
Male | 60.95 (22.37) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Female | 54.4 (22.63) | −6.55 | 1.48 | −4.43 | −0.14 | <0.001 | −7.50 | 1.89 | −3.96 | −0.16 | <0.001 |
Marital status | |||||||||||
Married | 58.25 (22.47) | −10.06 | 6.05 | −1.66 | −0.13 | 0.097 | 5.77 | 5.84 | 0.99 | 0.08 | 0.324 |
Divorced/widowed | 44.13 (21.42) | −24.17 | 6.61 | −3.65 | −0.17 | <0.001 | 6.77 | 6.64 | 1.02 | 0.08 | 0.308 |
Separated | 57.35 (28.92) | −10.95 | 8.10 | −1.35 | −0.06 | 0.177 | 8.04 | 7.77 | 1.03 | 0.05 | 0.301 |
Never married | 68.3 (15.59) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Education level | |||||||||||
No education | 53.93 (23.11) | −14.08 | 5.55 | −2.54 | −0.31 | 0.011 | −5.65 | 5.22 | −1.08 | −0.12 | 0.279 |
Primary school | 60.11 (21.86) | −7.91 | 5.60 | −1.41 | −0.17 | 0.158 | −5.40 | 5.24 | −1.03 | −0.11 | 0.302 |
Secondary school | 62.03 (21.1) | −5.99 | 5.76 | −1.04 | −0.10 | 0.299 | −6.07 | 5.35 | −1.13 | −0.10 | 0.257 |
Higher secondary school | 68.01 (25.85) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Duration of migration | |||||||||||
1–5 years | 62.38 (20.14) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
6–10 years | 62.54 (21.22) | 0.16 | 2.84 | 0.06 | <0.01 | 0.955 | 1.95 | 2.62 | 0.74 | 0.03 | 0.457 |
11–15 years | 61.12 (20.45) | −1.26 | 2.98 | −0.42 | −0.02 | 0.672 | 2.13 | 2.77 | 0.77 | 0.03 | 0.443 |
15–20 years | 58.77 (21.55) | −3.62 | 2.80 | −1.29 | −0.06 | 0.197 | 1.42 | 2.66 | 0.53 | 0.02 | 0.593 |
>20 years | 52.32 (24.13) | −10.06 | 2.46 | −4.08 | −0.22 | <0.001 | 1.82 | 2.54 | 0.72 | 0.04 | 0.473 |
Source of income | |||||||||||
Job | 69.88 (19.66) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Self-employed | 59.1 (21.67) | −10.78 | 2.62 | −4.12 | −0.18 | <0.001 | −7.09 | 2.54 | −2.79 | −0.12 | 0.005 |
Daily wager | 55.68 (22.34) | −14.20 | 2.15 | −6.59 | −0.30 | <0.001 | −8.43 | 2.21 | −3.82 | −0.18 | <0.001 |
Unemployed | 48.57 (22.78) | −21.31 | 3.50 | −6.08 | −0.22 | <0.001 | −10.37 | 3.95 | −2.63 | −0.11 | 0.009 |
Other | 37.15 (25.5) | −32.73 | 5.53 | −5.91 | −0.20 | <0.001 | −17.37 | 5.55 | −3.13 | −0.11 | 0.002 |
Reasons for migration | |||||||||||
For new job opportunity | 59.84 (21.94) | −12.03 | 11.37 | −1.06 | −0.26 | 0.290 | −5.88 | 10.55 | −0.56 | −0.13 | 0.578 |
For education | 71.88 (25.77) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
For family | 55.74 (22.86) | −16.14 | 11.36 | −1.42 | −0.36 | 0.156 | −10.08 | 10.51 | −0.96 | −0.22 | 0.338 |
For eviction | 70.31 (42.81) | −1.56 | 16.00 | −0.10 | <−0.01 | 0.922 | 6.45 | 14.79 | 0.44 | 0.02 | 0.663 |
Other reasons | 52.84 (23.59) | −19.03 | 11.65 | −1.63 | −0.21 | 0.103 | −7.26 | 10.79 | −0.67 | −0.08 | 0.501 |
Working hours | |||||||||||
Not working | 52.97 (22.86) | −10.50 | 1.78 | −5.90 | −0.23 | <0.001 | −0.87 | 2.28 | −0.38 | −0.02 | 0.702 |
≤8 h | 57.49 (22.07) | −5.98 | 1.89 | −3.16 | −0.12 | 0.002 | −2.76 | 1.82 | −1.52 | −0.06 | 0.130 |
>8 h | 63.47 (21.91) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Work-related risk in the current residence | |||||||||||
High | 57.98 (22.96) | 6.45 | 3.34 | 1.93 | 0.10 | 0.054 | 4.62 | 3.47 | 1.33 | 0.07 | 0.184 |
Moderate | 55.27 (20.39) | 3.74 | 4.09 | 0.91 | 0.05 | 0.361 | 2.70 | 4.54 | 0.60 | 0.03 | 0.552 |
Not significant | 51.53 (22.08) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Work-related stress in the current residence | |||||||||||
High | 57.74 (22.81) | 3.65 | 2.65 | 1.37 | 0.06 | 0.169 | −2.59 | 2.78 | −0.93 | −0.04 | 0.352 |
Moderate | 57.45 (20.54) | 3.36 | 3.67 | 0.92 | 0.04 | 0.360 | 0.97 | 4.15 | 0.23 | 0.01 | 0.815 |
Not significant | 54.09 (23.82) | Ref. | Ref. |
Variables | Mean (SD) | Unadjusted Estimates | Adjusted Estimates | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | t | β | p-Value | B | SE | t | β | p-Value | ||
Age | — — | −0.55 | 0.06 | −10.00 | −0.31 | <0.001 | −0.54 | 0.07 | −7.33 | −0.31 | <0.001 |
Sex | |||||||||||
Male | 63.29 (21.62) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Female | 58.65 (23.05) | −4.64 | 1.47 | −3.15 | −0.10 | 0.002 | −2.29 | 1.92 | −1.19 | −0.05 | 0.234 |
Marital status | |||||||||||
Married | 61.75 (21.96) | −10.39 | 5.98 | −1.74 | −0.14 | 0.083 | 2.05 | 5.93 | 0.34 | 0.03 | 0.730 |
Divorced/widowed | 47.63 (24.58) | −24.51 | 6.54 | −3.75 | −0.28 | <0.001 | −0.80 | 6.75 | −0.12 | −0.01 | 0.905 |
Separated | 53.24 (25.47) | −18.91 | 8.01 | −2.36 | −0.11 | 0.018 | −3.28 | 7.89 | −0.42 | −0.02 | 0.678 |
Never married | 72.14 (20.17) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Education level | |||||||||||
No education | 58.29 (23.52) | −13.04 | 5.52 | −2.36 | −0.29 | 0.018 | −5.55 | 5.30 | −1.05 | −0.12 | 0.295 |
Primary school | 62.34 (21.46) | −8.98 | 5.58 | −1.61 | −0.19 | 0.108 | −6.02 | 5.32 | −1.13 | −0.12 | 0.258 |
Secondary school | 64.47 (20.39) | −6.85 | 5.73 | −1.20 | −0.11 | 0.232 | −5.55 | 5.44 | −1.02 | −0.09 | 0.308 |
Higher secondary school | 71.32 (20.56) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Duration of migration | |||||||||||
1–5 years | 66.95 (19.46) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
6–10 years | 65.23 (21.26) | −1.72 | 2.82 | −0.61 | −0.03 | 0.542 | −0.25 | 2.66 | −0.09 | <−0.01 | 0.925 |
11–15 years | 63.25 (22.16) | −3.70 | 2.96 | −1.25 | −0.06 | 0.212 | −0.27 | 2.82 | −0.10 | <−0.01 | 0.924 |
15–20 years | 61.28 (21.49) | −5.67 | 2.78 | −2.04 | −0.10 | 0.042 | −1.30 | 2.70 | −0.48 | −0.02 | 0.631 |
>20 years | 56.38 (23.49) | −10.56 | 2.45 | −4.31 | −0.23 | <0.001 | −0.16 | 2.58 | −0.06 | <−0.01 | 0.951 |
Source of income | |||||||||||
Job | 70.95 (18.53) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Self-employed | 62.27 (21.73) | −8.68 | 2.61 | −3.32 | −0.14 | 0.001 | −4.73 | 2.57 | −1.84 | −0.08 | 0.066 |
Daily wager | 59.42 (22.57) | −11.54 | 2.15 | −5.37 | −0.25 | <0.001 | −4.85 | 2.24 | −2.17 | −0.10 | 0.031 |
Unemployed | 55.07 (21.51) | −15.89 | 3.50 | −4.55 | −0.17 | <0.001 | −2.14 | 4.01 | −0.53 | −0.02 | 0.594 |
Other | 37.08 (25.66) | −33.87 | 5.52 | −6.14 | −0.21 | <0.001 | −16.17 | 5.63 | −2.87 | −0.10 | 0.004 |
Reasons for migration | |||||||||||
For new job opportunity | 63.13 (22.23) | −3.12 | 11.27 | −0.28 | −0.07 | 0.782 | 3.25 | 10.69 | 0.30 | 0.07 | 0.761 |
For education | 66.25 (20.39) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
For family | 59.58 (22.52) | −6.67 | 11.26 | −0.59 | −0.15 | 0.554 | 0.39 | 10.65 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.971 |
For eviction | 44.69 (27.96) | −21.56 | 15.86 | −1.36 | −0.06 | 0.174 | −13.23 | 14.99 | −0.88 | −0.04 | 0.378 |
Other reason | 55.70 (22.76) | −10.55 | 11.55 | −0.91 | −0.12 | 0.361 | 1.42 | 10.94 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.897 |
Working hours | |||||||||||
Not working | 56.03 (22.80) | −11.83 | 1.75 | −6.75 | −0.26 | <0.001 | −7.58 | 2.31 | −3.29 | −0.17 | 0.001 |
≤8 h | 60.31 (22.05) | −7.55 | 1.86 | −4.05 | −0.15 | <0.001 | −5.86 | 1.84 | −3.18 | −0.12 | 0.002 |
>8 h | 67.86 (20.81) | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||
Work-related risk in the current residence | |||||||||||
High | 61.65 (22.79) | 3.41 | 3.30 | 1.03 | 0.05 | 0.301 | — | — | — | — | — |
Moderate | 53.72 (21.66) | −4.52 | 4.04 | −1.12 | −0.06 | 0.263 | — | — | — | — | — |
Not significant | 58.24 (16.62) | Ref. | |||||||||
Work-related stress in the current residence | |||||||||||
High | 61.08 (22.47) | −1.93 | 2.62 | −0.73 | −0.03 | 0.463 | −6.34 | 2.49 | −2.55 | −0.10 | 0.011 |
Moderate | 54.95 (22.82) | −8.06 | 3.63 | −2.22 | −0.10 | 0.026 | −10.25 | 3.40 | −3.01 | −0.12 | 0.003 |
Not significant | 63.01 (22.12) | Ref. | Ref. |
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Koly, K.N.; Islam, M.S.; Reidpath, D.D.; Saba, J.; Shafique, S.; Chowdhury, M.R.; Begum, F. Health-Related Quality of Life among Rural-Urban Migrants Living in Dhaka Slums: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Bangladesh. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910507
Koly KN, Islam MS, Reidpath DD, Saba J, Shafique S, Chowdhury MR, Begum F. Health-Related Quality of Life among Rural-Urban Migrants Living in Dhaka Slums: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910507
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoly, Kamrun Nahar, Md. Saiful Islam, Daniel D Reidpath, Jobaida Saba, Sohana Shafique, Md. Razib Chowdhury, and Farzana Begum. 2021. "Health-Related Quality of Life among Rural-Urban Migrants Living in Dhaka Slums: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Bangladesh" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910507