The Association between Dietary Habits, Substance Use, and Mental Distress among Adults in Southern Norway: A Cross-Sectional Study among 28,047 Adults from the General Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Questions | Response Alternatives | Variable Definitions |
---|---|---|
Mental Distress | ||
During the past week, to what degree have you been bothered with nervousness or inner concern? | Not bothered, a little bothered, somewhat bothered, extremely bothered | No mental distress (reference) Mental distress (HSCL-5 > 2.0) |
During the past week, to what degree have you been bothered with fear or anxiousness? | ||
During the past week, to what degree have you been bothered with hopelessness about the future? | ||
During the past week, to what degree have you been bothered with unhappiness or sadness? | ||
During the past week, to what degree have you been bothered with concern or restlessness? | ||
Diet and Beverage Consumption | ||
How often do you eat fruits and berries (not including juices)? | Rarely/never, 1–3 times/month, once/week, 2–3 times/week, 4–6 times/week, daily | High consumption (reference) Low consumption (<6 times/week) |
How often do you eat vegetables, included salads (not including potatoes)? | High consumption (reference) Low consumption (<6 times/week) | |
How often do you eat fish (as topping on bread, for lunch or dinner)? | High consumption (reference) Low consumption (<1 once/week) | |
How often do you drink sugar-sweetened soft drinks or beverages? | Low consumption (reference) High consumption (≥4 times/week). | |
Tobacco | ||
How often do you smoke? Including both filter cigarettes and rolling tobacco. | Daily, sometimes; not now, but daily in the past; not now, but sometimes in the past; have never smoked or used smokeless tobacco | Non-smoker (reference) Smoker (daily, sometimes) |
How often do you use smokeless tobacco? | No current use (reference) Current use (daily, sometimes) | |
Alcohol | ||
Have you ever drunk any kind of alcoholic beverage? | Yes, No. | No excessive alcohol use (reference) Excessive alcohol use (score >5 for males, >4 for females) |
Within the last 12 months, how often have you had a drink containing alcohol? | Never, ≤ once/month, 2–4 times </month, 2–3 times/week, ≥4 times/week | |
How many drinks containing alcohol do you have on a typical day of drinking? | 1–2, 3–4, 4–5, 5–6, 7–9, ≥10 | |
How often do you have six or more drinks on one occasion? | Never, < once/month, monthly, weekly, daily or almost daily | |
Perceived Financial Situation | ||
If you live in a single-person household, think about your total income. If you live together with others, think of the total income of everyone in the household. How easy or difficult is it for you to make your money last on a daily basis, with this income? | Very difficult, difficult, relatively difficult, relatively easy, easy, very easy, don’t know | Easy financial situation (reference) Difficult financial situation (very difficult, difficult, relatively difficult) |
BMI | ||
How tall are you without shoes? Answer in cm. How much do you weigh without clothes and shoes? Answer in kg. If pregnant, weight before pregnancy. | BMI < 25 (reference) BMI ≥ 25 (overweight/obesity) | |
Age | ||
Retrieved from the Central Population Register. | ≥18 years old | Continuous variable (low, reference) |
Low Consumption of Fruit and Berries % (95% CI) | Low Consumption of Vegetables % (95% CI) | Low Consumption of Fish % (95% CI) | High Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages % (95% CI) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | p-Value * | Males | Females | p-Value * | Males | Females | p-Value * | Males | Females | p-Value * | |
Mental Distress | 13 (12–14) | 18 (17–19) | <0.001 | 13 (12–14) | 18 (17–19) | <0.001 | 19 (17–20) | 24 (22–25) | <0.001 | 19 (17–21) | 29 (26–31) | <0.001 |
No Mental Distress | 87 (86–88) | 82 (81–83) | 87 (86–88) | 82 (81–83) | 81 (80–83) | 76 (75–78) | 81 (79–83) | 71 (69–74) |
Smoking % (95% CI) | Using Smokeless Tobacco % (95% CI) | Excessive Alcohol Consumption % (95% CI) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | p-Value * | Males | Females | p-Value * | Males | Females | p-Value * | |
Mental Distress | 19 (17–20) | 22 (21–24) | 0.004 | 16 (15–18) | 28 (26–30) | <0.001 | 14 (13–15) | 19 (18–20) | <0.001 |
No Mental Distress | 81 (80–83) | 78 (76–79) | 84 (82–85) | 72 (70–74) | 86 (85–87) | 81 (80–82) |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males, Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | Males OR (95% CI) | Females, Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | Females OR (95% CI) | ||
Exposure Variables | |||||
Fruit and berries | |||||
High consumption | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Low consumption | 1.27 (1.08–1.49) ** | 1.06 (0.89–1.26) | 1.29 (1.16–1.45) *** | 1.10 (0.97–1.24) | |
Vegetables | |||||
High consumption | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Low consumption | 1.19 (1.03–1.37) * | 1.26 (1.08–1.47) ** | 1.18 (1.06–1.31) ** | 1.14 (1.02–1.28) * | |
Fish | |||||
High consumption | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Low consumption | 1.79 (1.59–2.01) *** | 1.28 (1.12–1.46) *** | 1.79 (1.62–1.98) *** | 1.36 (1.22–1.52) *** | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | |||||
Low consumption | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
High consumption | 1.47 (1.27–1.69) ** | 1.13 (0.96–1.32) | 1.81 (1.57–2.10) *** | 1.25 (1.06–1.48) ** | |
Smoke | |||||
Not smoking | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Smoking | 1.65 (1.45–1.88) *** | 1.38 (1.19–1.60) *** | 1.46 (1.30–1.65) *** | 1.44 (1.26–1.64) *** | |
Smokeless tobacco | |||||
Not using smokeless tobacco | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Using smokeless tobacco | 1.30 (1.14–1.48) *** | 1.01 (0.87–1.17) | 1.83 (1.60–2.10) *** | 1.20 (1.03–1.40) * | |
Alcohol | |||||
Low alcohol consumption | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Excessive alcohol consumption | 1.12 (1.00–1.25) | 1.07 (0.94–1.21) | 1.20 (1.08–1.32) *** | 1.04 (0.93–1.16) | |
Control Variables | BMI | ||||
Normal weight | 1 | 1 | |||
Overweight/obese | 1.02 (0.89–1.15) | 1.06 (0.95–1.17) | |||
Perceived financial situation | |||||
Easy | 1 | 1 | |||
Difficult | 4.93 (4.36–5.57) *** | 3.59 (3.23–3.99) *** | |||
Age | |||||
Younger | 1 | 1 | |||
Older | 0.98 (0.98–0.98) *** | 0.97 (0.97–0.97) *** |
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Stea, T.H.; Alvsvåg, L.; Kleppang, A.L. The Association between Dietary Habits, Substance Use, and Mental Distress among Adults in Southern Norway: A Cross-Sectional Study among 28,047 Adults from the General Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9731. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189731
Stea TH, Alvsvåg L, Kleppang AL. The Association between Dietary Habits, Substance Use, and Mental Distress among Adults in Southern Norway: A Cross-Sectional Study among 28,047 Adults from the General Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9731. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189731
Chicago/Turabian StyleStea, Tonje Holte, Linn Alvsvåg, and Annette Løvheim Kleppang. 2021. "The Association between Dietary Habits, Substance Use, and Mental Distress among Adults in Southern Norway: A Cross-Sectional Study among 28,047 Adults from the General Population" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9731. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189731