Employees’ Longer Working Lives in Europe: Drivers and Barriers in Companies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses
1.1.1. Human Resource Policies
1.1.2. Workforce Characteristics
1.1.3. Structural Characteristics of the Company
1.1.4. Position of the Company in the Larger Economic and Labor Market Climate
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Measures
- a)
- Encouraging employees to continue working until the statutory retirement age (i.e., no early retirement).
- b)
- Encouraging employees to continue working beyond the statutory retirement age (i.e., delay of retirement).
- c)
- Recruiting employees who already retired (i.e., unretirement).
2.3. Sample Description
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Role of Human Resource Policies
4.2. Workforce Characteristics: Stereotypes and Economic Considerations
4.3. Company Size and Sector
4.4. The Economic and Labor Market Climate
4.5. Country Differences in EWL
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sweden | Denmark | Netherlands | Germany | Italy | Poland | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Numbers of Cases | 525 | 587 | 1046 | 666 | 770 | 1030 | 4624 |
EWL in companies (yes) | |||||||
Encour\aging working until statutory retirement age | 28.6 | 42.8 | 20.9 | 27.7 | 10.8 | 44.1 | 28.9 |
Encouraging working beyond retirement age | 14.3 | 21.2 | 8.5 | 6.8 | 6.1 | 29.0 | 15.0 |
Recruiting employees who already retired | 7.8 | 12.8 | 8.6 | 14.6 | 3.9 | 43.1 | 17.6 |
HR Policies (yes) | |||||||
Part-time retirement | 24.6 | 19.7 | 49.9 | 16.4 | 4.5 | 28.3 | 25.7 |
Early retirement schemes | 19.0 | 15.1 | 55.0 | 23.3 | 10.1 | 39.1 | 30.0 |
Decreasing the workload for older workers | 13.5 | 36.0 | 37.0 | 8.4 | 7.4 | 9.9 | 18.8 |
Demotion | 3.4 | 21.2 | 8.4 | 4.3 | 0.8 | 2.9 | 6.3 |
Training plans for older workers | 11.0 | 11.5 | 14.9 | 24.9 | 2.2 | 39.5 | 19.1 |
Company’s workforce characteristics | |||||||
% high-skilled workers | 36.0 (33.9) | 20.0 (24.8) | 18.6 (27.0) | 19.0 (23.5) | 26.0 (29.8) | 37.8 (31.8) | 26.0 (29.6) |
% low-skilled workers | 37.3 (34.5) | 23.0 (26.9) | 18.2 (26.8) | 15.9 (20.0) | 36.0 (35.5) | 17.4 (23.4) | 23.1 (28.8) |
% older workers | 31.2 (18.9) | 26.7 (15.1) | 23.3 (15.6) | 26.8 (15.2) | 19.3 (18.5) | 25.3 (19.7) | 25.0 (17.6) |
% female workers | 42.6 (28.7) | 41.2 (25.7) | 35.0 (27.3) | 49.8 (27.3) | 40.3 (27.6) | 45.7 (28.8) | 42.3 (28.0) |
Company’s structural characteristics | |||||||
Size | |||||||
Small | 38.3 | 32.7 | 33.8 | 28.4 | 37.9 | 44.7 | 36.3 |
Medium | 32.6 | 33.0 | 34.2 | 34.3 | 34.5 | 41.4 | 35.7 |
Large | 29.1 | 34.3 | 32.0 | 34.6 | 27.5 | 13.8 | 28.0 |
Sector | |||||||
Industry | 36.7 | 35.3 | 35.7 | 25.0 | 40.4 | 41.7 | 35.9 |
Services | 28.8 | 30.9 | 33.1 | 24.4 | 31.7 | 28.9 | 29.8 |
Public | 34.5 | 33.8 | 31.2 | 48.9 | 27.9 | 29.3 | 34.3 |
Economic and labor market climate | |||||||
Need to reduce staff to some/high extent | 45.0 | 33.0 | 36.0 | 26.3 | 32.1 | 14.9 | 29.9 |
Recruitment problems (yes) | 26.7 | 55.5 | 57.4 | 56.3 | 28.8 | 35.9 | 44.9 |
Knowledge intensity (1—low, 5—high) | 4.0 (0.82) | 3.8 (0.89) | 3.7 (0.96) | 3.9 (0.76) | 2.1 (0.84) | 4.1 (0.80) | 3.6 (1.07) |
Labor unions involvement (1—low, 5—high) | 3.3 (1.11) | 2.8 (1.23) | 2.6 (1.18) | 2.3 (1.21) | 3.1 (1.26) | 2.5 (1.40) | 2.7 (1.28) |
Industry | Services | Public | Total Sample | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Cases | 1379 | 1126 | 1265 | 3938 | |||||||
AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | B | p-Value | |
HR Policies (yes) | |||||||||||
Part-time retirement | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.042 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.283 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.198 | 0.29 | 0.004 |
Early retirement schemes | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.756 | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.041 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.793 | −0.09 | 0.373 |
Decreasing the workload for older workers | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.000 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.002 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.001 | 0.59 | 0.000 |
Demotion | 0.16 | 0.05 | 0.005 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.056 | 0.17 | 0.06 | 0.002 | 0.73 | 0.000 |
Training plans for older workers | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.026 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.004 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.083 | 0.41 | 0.000 |
Company’s workforce characteristics | |||||||||||
% high-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.013 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.981 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.767 | 0.00 | 0.102 |
% low-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.414 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.686 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.085 | 0.00 | 0.117 |
% older workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.037 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.004 | 0.01 | 0.000 |
% female workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.357 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 00.153 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.627 | −0.00 | 0.500 |
Company’s structural characteristics | |||||||||||
Size (ref. Small) | |||||||||||
Medium | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.947 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.479 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.082 | 0.07 | 0.463 |
Large | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.816 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.011 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.060 | 0.28 | 0.010 |
Sector (ref. Industry) | |||||||||||
Services | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.01 | 0.907 |
Public | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.09 | 0.491 |
Economic and labor market climate | |||||||||||
Need to reduce staff to some/high extent | −0.06 | 0.02 | 0.014 | −0.05 | 0.03 | 0.083 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.730 | −0.21 | 0.019 |
Recruitment problems (yes) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.115 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.001 | 0.41 | 0.000 |
Knowledge intensity | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.214 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.443 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.047 | 0.08 | 0.093 |
Labor unions involvement | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.563 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.204 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.339 | −0.06 | 0.077 |
Country (ref. Sweden) | |||||||||||
Denmark | 0.16 | 0.05 | 0.002 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.955 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.728 | 0.39 | 0.011 |
Netherlands | −0.08 | 0.04 | 0.079 | −0.10 | 0.05 | 0.044 | −0.19 | 0.05 | 0.000 | −0.67 | 0.000 |
Germany | −0.05 | 0.05 | 0.292 | −0.03 | 0.06 | 0.609 | −0.09 | 0.05 | 0.099 | −0.19 | 0.235 |
Italy | −0.05 | 0.05 | 0.335 | −0.20 | 0.05 | 0.000 | −0.20 | 0.06 | 0.001 | −0.79 | 0.000 |
Poland | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.005 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.249 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.024 | 0.60 | 0.000 |
R-squared | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.18 |
Industry | Services | Public | Total Sample | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Cases | 1379 | 1121 | 1267 | 3933 | |||||||
AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | B | p-Value | |
HR Policies (yes) | |||||||||||
Part-time retirement | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.036 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.198 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.177 | 0.33 | 0.007 |
Early retirement schemes | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.856 | −0.05 | 0.02 | 0.050 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.294 | −0.03 | 0.789 |
Decreasing the workload for older workers | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.249 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.001 | 0.57 | 0.000 |
Demotion | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.014 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.378 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.018 | 0.67 | 0.000 |
Training plans for older workers | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.251 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.041 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.443 | 0.27 | 0.029 |
Company’s workforce characteristics | |||||||||||
% high-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.552 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.676 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.908 | 0.00 | 0.362 |
% low-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.322 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.087 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.648 | 0.01 | 0.017 |
% older workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.259 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.018 | 0.01 | 0.000 |
% female workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.813 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.300 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.315 | 0.00 | 0.897 |
Company’s structural characteristics | |||||||||||
Size (ref. Small) | |||||||||||
Medium | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.155 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.290 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.855 | 0.16 | 0.207 |
Large | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.910 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.367 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.725 | 0.14 | 0.334 |
Sector (ref. Industry) | |||||||||||
Services | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.13 | 0.301 |
Public | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.13 | 0.394 |
Economic and labor market climate | |||||||||||
Need to reduce staff to some/high extent | −0.05 | 0.02 | 0.005 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.041 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.934 | −0.30 | 0.011 |
Recruitment problems (yes) | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.005 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.355 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.280 | 0.32 | 0.002 |
Knowledge intensity | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.371 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.946 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.457 | 0.09 | 0.175 |
Labor unions involvement | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.822 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.556 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.625 | −0.02 | 0.556 |
Country (ref. Sweden) | |||||||||||
Denmark | 0.13 | 0.04 | 0.001 | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.893 | −0.01 | 0.05 | 0.816 | 0.31 | 0.103 |
Netherlands | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.409 | −0.05 | 0.04 | 0.174 | −0.14 | 0.04 | 0.001 | −0.77 | 0.000 |
Germany | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.922 | −0.09 | 0.04 | 0.036 | −0.09 | 0.04 | 0.034 | −0.56 | 0.013 |
Italy | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.286 | −0.08 | 0.04 | 0.043 | −0.15 | 0.05 | 0.001 | −0.53 | 0.029 |
Poland | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.000 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.032 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.070 | 0.86 | 0.000 |
R-squared | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.15 |
Industry | Services | Public | Total Sample | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Cases | 1358 | 1128 | 1271 | 3952 | |||||||
AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | AME | SE | p-Value | B | p-Value | |
HR Policies (yes) | |||||||||||
Part-time retirement | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.044 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.022 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.961 | 0.39 | 0.002 |
Early retirement schemes | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.007 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.186 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.596 | 0.35 | 0.003 |
Decreasing the workload for older workers | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.237 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.022 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.004 | 0.48 | 0.000 |
Demotion | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.142 | −0.03 | 0.03 | 0.300 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.357 | 0.12 | 0.510 |
Training plans for older workers | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.274 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.071 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.701 | 0.16 | 0.170 |
Company’s workforce characteristics | |||||||||||
% high-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.406 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.038 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.260 | 0.00 | 0.683 |
% low-skilled workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.015 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.799 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.363 | 0.01 | 0.032 |
% older workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.016 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.001 | 0.02 | 0.000 |
% female workers | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.735 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.134 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.907 | 0.00 | 0.865 |
Company’s structural characteristics | |||||||||||
Size (ref. Small) | |||||||||||
Medium | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.000 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.000 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.076 | 0.72 | 0.000 |
Large | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.106 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.042 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.018 | 0.55 | 0.000 |
Sector (ref. Industry) | |||||||||||
Services | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.07 | 0.582 |
Public | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.18 | 0.264 |
Economic and labor market climate | |||||||||||
Need to reduce staff to some/high extent | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.420 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.056 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.079 | −0.11 | 0.343 |
Recruitment problems (yes) | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.005 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.066 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.004 | 0.46 | 0.000 |
Knowledge intensity | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.033 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.146 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.428 | 0.18 | 0.006 |
Labor unions involvement | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.002 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.119 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.112 | −0.15 | 0.000 |
Country (ref. Sweden) | |||||||||||
Denmark | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.000 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.735 | −0.05 | 0.04 | 0.240 | 0.54 | 0.020 |
Netherlands | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.003 | −0.04 | 0.03 | 0.242 | −0.09 | 0.04 | 0.010 | −0.30 | 0.209 |
Germany | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.000 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.037 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.174 | 1.06 | 0.000 |
Italy | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.040 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.794 | −0.10 | 0.04 | 0.015 | −0.05 | 0.854 |
Poland | 0.34 | 0.04 | 0.000 | 0.30 | 0.05 | 0.000 | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.000 | 2.18 | 0.000 |
R-squared | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.18 | 0.26 |
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Principi, A.; Bauknecht, J.; Di Rosa, M.; Socci, M. Employees’ Longer Working Lives in Europe: Drivers and Barriers in Companies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1658. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051658
Principi A, Bauknecht J, Di Rosa M, Socci M. Employees’ Longer Working Lives in Europe: Drivers and Barriers in Companies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(5):1658. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051658
Chicago/Turabian StylePrincipi, Andrea, Jürgen Bauknecht, Mirko Di Rosa, and Marco Socci. 2020. "Employees’ Longer Working Lives in Europe: Drivers and Barriers in Companies" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 5: 1658. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051658
APA StylePrincipi, A., Bauknecht, J., Di Rosa, M., & Socci, M. (2020). Employees’ Longer Working Lives in Europe: Drivers and Barriers in Companies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1658. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051658