Multidimensional Energy Poverty and Mental Health: Micro-Level Evidence from Ghana
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Measuring Energy Poverty
2.2. Energy Poverty and Mental Health
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Data
3.2. Measurement of Key Variables
3.2.1. Mental Health
- For a score less than 20, the respondent is ranked to have low levels of depression;
- Between 20 and 24, the respondent is described to suffer from mild levels of depression;
- Between 25 and 29, the respondent is defined to be moderately depressed;
- For scores above 30, the respondent is described to be severely depressed.
3.2.2. Energy Poverty
3.2.3. Other Control Variables
3.3. Econometric Strategy
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.2. Energy Deprivations in Ghana by the Various Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI) Indicators between 2010 and 2015
4.3. The Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI) in Ghana
4.4. Regression Results
4.5. Dealing with Endogeneity
5. Conclusions
- To reduce energy poverty and improve mental health, policymakers must consider a holistic approach in solving energy poverty where simultaneous attention is given to all of the dimensions of the MEPI;
- Although interventions such as the LPG program that sought to supply households with cookstoves and LPG cylinders have been implemented, the ability of beneficiaries to financially and sustainably use LPG cylinders and stoves continues to be a significant constraint [61,67]. Therefore, a mechanism that identifies and provides financial incentives to the beneficiaries of the program is recommended since higher prices of LPG was also found to increase depression through MEPI;
- Granting that the MEPI has reduced across all the ten regions of Ghana in the understudied period, there is still a high prevalence of it in the three Northern regions. A great deal of political weightiness is brought to the floor by this particular finding, as it tends to serve as a guide to politicians in targeting regions with of higher incidence of energy poverty;
- As energy poverty has been observed to deteriorate the mental health of respondents in this study. Policies makers must consider the role of access to clean, affordable and reliable energy play in mental health policies;
- Aside from concentrating on electricity access and modern fuel usage as means in reducing energy poverty, attention should be given to the end usage of energy (refrigerator and mobile phone ownership) as they play a vital role in the mental health status of people. We advocate for subsidies on these energy services for vulnerable groups.
Limitation of the Study
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Please Indicate the Answer that Corresponds with You Experience in the Past 4 Weeks | None of the Time (Score 1) | A Little of the Time (Score 2) | Some of the Time (Score 3) | Most of the Time (Score 4) | All of the Time (Score 5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
About how often did you feel tired out for no good reason? | |||||
About how often did you feel nervous? | |||||
About how often did you feel so nervous that nothing could calm you down? | |||||
About how often did you feel hopeless? | |||||
About how often did you feel restless or fidgety? | |||||
About how often did you feel so restless you could not sit still? | |||||
About how often did you feel depressed? | |||||
About how often did you feel that everything was an effort? | |||||
About how often did you feel so sad that nothing could cheer you up? | |||||
How many days were you unable to work? |
Variable | Description | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|
Depression | Kessler psychological distress scale (K10) | 16.81 | 5.96 |
Energy poverty | Multidimensional energy poverty | 0.44 | 0.25 |
Education | Highest Educational Level of Household head | ||
Junior high | Education (1 = junior high, 0 = other) | 0.46 | 0.50 |
Senior high | Education (1 = senior high, 0 = other) | 0.12 | 0.33 |
Tertiary | Education (1 = tertiary, 0 = other) | 0.11 | 0.31 |
Age | Age of household head | 44.76 | 13.62 |
Female | Sex of household head (1 = female and 0 = other) | 0.31 | 0.46 |
Household income | Household monthly expenditure for both food and non-food items | 440.77 | 438.7 |
Health insurance (yes) | Health insurance beneficiary | 0.61 | 0.49 |
Smoking (yes) | Smoking habit | 0.08 | 0.27 |
BMI (base: Normal) | Body Mass Index | ||
Underweight | BMI (1 = underweight, 0 = other) | 0.03 | 0.05 |
Overweight | BMI (1 = overweight, 0 = other) | 0.06 | 0.23 |
Obese | BMI (1 = obese, 0 = other) | 0.93 | 0.24 |
Urban | Location (1 = urban, 0 = rural) | 0.48 | 0.50 |
Region (base: western) | Region of residence | ||
Central | Region (1 = Central region, 0 = other) | 0.11 | 0.31 |
Greater Accra | Region (1 = Greater Accra region, 0 = other) | 0.17 | 0.38 |
Volta | Region (1 = Volta region, 0 = other) | 0.08 | 0.26 |
Eastern | Region (1 = Eastern region, 0 = other) | 0.12 | 0.33 |
Ashanti | Region (1 = Ashanti region, 0 = other) | 0.17 | 0.38 |
Brong Ahafo | Region (1 = Brong Ahafo region, 0 = other) | 0.11 | 0.31 |
Northern | Region (1 = Northern region, 0 = other) | 0.06 | 0.22 |
Upper East | Region (1 = Upper East region, 0 = other) | 0.03 | 0.16 |
Upper West | Region (1 = Upper West region, 0 = other) | 0.01 | 0.07 |
Variables | Mildly Depressed | Moderately Depressed | Severely Depressed |
---|---|---|---|
MEPI | 0.572 ** | 1.532 *** | 1.889 *** |
(0.221) | (0.387) | (0.504) | |
Controls? | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Log-likelihood | −2916.338 | ||
Pseudo R2 | 0.052 | ||
Wald statistic | 2137.72 *** | ||
Observations | 3754 |
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Dimensions | Indicator (Weight) | Variable | Deprivation Cutoff (Poor If…) |
---|---|---|---|
Lightning | Electricity access (0.200) | Is a household connected to the national grid | False |
Cooking | Modern cooking fuel access (0.200) | Biomass is the primary source of cooking fuel for the household | True |
Indoor air pollution (0.200) | Household employs biomass fuel in an enclosed room without chimney or window for cooking | True | |
Ownership of asset | Household appliance ownership of (0.130) | Owns a refrigerator or freezer | False |
Ownership of entertainment or education appliance (0.130) | Owns a radio or TV | False | |
Telecommunications | Means of telecommunication (0.130) | Owns a mobile phone | False |
Indicator | Weight | Deprived on Indicator (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
2010 | 2015 | ||
Lightning | |||
Electricity access | 0.200 | 46.631 | 30.954 |
Cooking | |||
Modern cooking fuel | 0.200 | 88.727 | 77.735 |
Indoor air pollution | 0.200 | 21.747 | 18.729 |
Services provided using a household appliance | |||
Household appliance ownership (refrigerator) | 0.130 | 80.080 | 73.150 |
Entertainment/education appliance ownership (radio or television) | 0.130 | 50.298 | 49.319 |
Telecommunication means (phone land line or mobile phone) | 0.130 | 46.043 | 19.471 |
Index | 2010 | 2015 |
---|---|---|
Headcount/incidence (H) | 0.857 | 0.755 |
Average intensity (A) | 0.580 | 0.448 |
MEPI (H*A) | 0.497 | 0.338 |
Variables | Mildly Depressed | Moderately Depressed | Severely Depressed |
---|---|---|---|
MEPI | 0.619 *** | 1.582 *** | 1.936 *** |
(0.237) | (0.413) | (0.524) | |
Education (base: none) | |||
Junior high school (JHS) | −0.360 *** | −0.162 | −0.655 *** |
(0.109) | (0.162) | (0.220) | |
Senior high school (SHS) | −0.664 *** | −0.290 | −0.095 |
(0.187) | (0.289) | (0.329) | |
Tertiary | −0.506 *** | −0.553 * | −0.992 ** |
(0.195) | (0.326) | (0.462) | |
Age of household head | 0.004 | 0.004 | −0.001 |
(0.004) | (0.005) | (0.008) | |
Female | 0.526 *** | 0.679 *** | 1.063 *** |
(0.113) | (0.165) | (0.226) | |
Ln (income) | −0.231 *** | −0.203 ** | 0.051 |
(0.065) | (0.096) | (0.129) | |
Health insurance (yes) | −0.175 * | −0.345 ** | 0.020 |
(0.106) | (0.156) | (0.226) | |
Smoking (yes) | 0.117 | 0.547 ** | 0.997 *** |
(0.182) | (0.249) | (0.309) | |
Body mass index (BMI) | 0.010 | −0.202 | 0.162 |
(0.148) | (0.181) | (0.296) | |
Urban | −0.172 | −0.052 | 0.264 |
(0.114) | (0.184) | (0.234) | |
Region (base: Western) | |||
Central | −0.459 ** | −0.0361 | 0.546 |
(0.207) | (0.287) | (0.387) | |
Greater Accra | −0.049 | 0.114 | −0.460 |
(0.186) | (0.302) | (0.471) | |
Volta | 0.0681 | 0.264 | 0.136 |
(0.218) | (0.348) | (0.530) | |
Eastern | 0.0495 | 0.490* | 0.924** |
(0.188) | (0.275) | (0.374) | |
Ashanti | −0.149 | −0.123 | 0.047 |
(0.174) | (0.284) | (0.390) | |
Brong Ahafo | 0.265 | 0.089 | 0.254 |
(0.185) | (0.304) | (0.406) | |
Northern | 0.853 *** | 1.315 *** | 1.472 *** |
(0.234) | (0.317) | (0.470) | |
Upper East | 0.719 *** | 1.065 *** | 0.866 |
(0.274) | (0.396) | (0.619) | |
Upper West | 0.621 | 1.244 | −14.920 *** |
(0.705) | (0.856) | (0.531) | |
Constant | −0.457 | −1.701 * | −5.589 *** |
(0.743) | (0.963) | (1.495) | |
LR test (FE vs pooled) | 7.27 *** | ||
Log-likelihood | −2912.66 | ||
McFadden’s pseudo R-squared | 0.053 | ||
VIF | 1.43 | ||
Observations | 3754 |
Variables | Mildly Depressed | Moderately Depressed | Severely Depressed |
---|---|---|---|
Panel A—Addressing the endogeneity of MEPI with prices of electricity and LPG | |||
MEPI | 0.562 ** | 1.494 *** | 1.867 *** |
(0.229) | (0.362) | (0.477) | |
Controls? | Yes | Yes | Yes |
First stage | |||
Ln (electricity prices) | 0.033 *** | ||
(0.006) | |||
Ln (LPG prices) | 0.014 ** | ||
(0.006) |
Variable | Average Treatment Effect on the Treated |
---|---|
MEPI | 1.679 *** |
(0.385) | |
Indicators of MEPI | |
Electricity access | 1.083 *** |
(0.332) | |
Modern cooking fuel | 0.844 * |
(0.479) | |
Indoor air pollution | 0.769 ** |
(0.325) | |
Refrigerator ownership | 1.218 *** |
(0.437) | |
Radio/television (T.V) ownership | −0.0503 |
(0.252) | |
Mobile phone ownership | 0.891 ** |
(0.364) |
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Lin, B.; Okyere, M.A. Multidimensional Energy Poverty and Mental Health: Micro-Level Evidence from Ghana. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6726. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186726
Lin B, Okyere MA. Multidimensional Energy Poverty and Mental Health: Micro-Level Evidence from Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(18):6726. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186726
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Boqiang, and Michael Adu Okyere. 2020. "Multidimensional Energy Poverty and Mental Health: Micro-Level Evidence from Ghana" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 18: 6726. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186726