Review of Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Diets and Potential for Development of Harmonised Indicators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Potential for Geographic Bias
3.2. Environmental Indicators
3.3. Nutrition and Health Indicators
3.4. Socioeconomic and Other Indicators
3.5. Development of the Harmonised Indicators
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Country | Objective of the Paper | Main Findings | Main Indicators/Index Identified |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wratten et al. [27] | New Zealand | Measuring of sustainability in agricultural systems | The “Selwyn Stewardship Monitoring Scheme” in New Zealand showed that the arable farm was the most efficient with meat and that farms that deals with dairy were considerably less efficient. |
|
Carlsson-Kanyama. [12] | Sweden | Determine the outcome of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) on rice, dry pea, carrot, potato, tomato and pork production | Animal rearing and crop management practices were more relevant to environmental outcomes than other areas of the food supply chain. |
|
Jungbluth et al. [28] | Switzerland | Assess obstacles and choices for the purchase of foods that are environmentally friendly | The largest impact on lowering diet-related GHGEs was not buying air-transported products and meat consumption reduction. |
|
White [29] | International | Examines how the role of changes in diet across populations leads to inequality in the delivery of environmental impacts | An inequality in dietary energy distribution is linked with an inequality in the use of land to a lesser extent than meat-intensive diets. |
|
Gerbens-Leenes, Moll and SchootUiterkamp [30] | International | The use of environmental indicators for the production and sustainability of food systems | Three performance indicators were identified: energy, the total land and water requirement per kilogram of available food to be used by individuals, business sectors and companies. |
|
Moldan et al. [31] | International | To identify and describe composite indicators of environmental sustainability | A number of composite indicators were identified and described. which include the Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI), Dashboard of Sustainability (DS) and Wellbeing/Stress Index (WI) |
|
Gerbens-Leenes and Nonhebel [32] | International | Examine the association between agricultural land use and eating patterns | Eating patterns linked to greater wealth (i.e., cheese, fruits and meats) require more agricultural lands. |
|
Risku-Norja et al. [33] | Finland | Determine agricultural GHGE for 4 diet settings and organic production in comparison with industrial production | Organic production has a higher GHGE because of more cultivated acreage, and the main origin of GHGEs from agricultural production is the soil management practices. |
|
Stehfest et al. [34] | International | Measure the effect of a dietary shift toward less meat on the environment | The emissions of methane and nitrous oxide would permit an increased carbon uptake, and consumption of less meat would productively scale down land use. |
|
Smedman et al. [14] | Sweden | Evaluate GHGEs from producing different beverages | Milk has the highest GHGEs when compared to the GHGEs of other beverages. |
|
Carvalho et al. [15] | Brazil | Evaluate red- and processed-meat intake and the impact meat consumption has on diet attributes and the environment | Diet quality was inversely associated with meat intake in men. Meat consumption emitted greenhouse gas emissions of 18071988 tonnes of CO2 equivalents, which represent about 4% of the total CO2 emitted by agriculture. |
|
Macdiarmid et al. [35] | United Kingdom | Determine the outcome of varied dietary options on GHGEs | The removal of meats and foods from dairy does not necessarily lead to a reduction of diet-related GHGE. |
|
Scarborough et al. [36] | United Kingdom | Models the effect of the three environmental scenarios on life loss from cardiovascular disease and cancer | The model showed that in Scenario 1 resulted in 36,910 deaths prevented per year, and Scenario 2 averted 1999 deaths per year, while Scenario 3 resulted in 9297 deaths delayed per year. A 19%, 9% and 3% reduction in GHGE characterised Scenarios 1, 2 and 3 respectively. |
|
Capone et al. [37] | Italy | Analysed the environmental cost of nonadherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern from a water footprint perspective | A reduced total water abstraction is linked to an adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern. |
|
Liu and Zhang [38] | China | Proposing a methodological framework for measuring the sustainability level of main agricultural regions in China on regional and country levels | The balanced method yields lower sustainable values than the aggregate method and sensitivity analysis. |
|
Masset et al. [39] | France | Identify the most frequently consumed sustainable diets by people daily | The diets were categorized into lower carbon diets, higher-quality diets and more-sustainable diets. Each of them had beneficial outputs, but the more-sustainable diets had the best outcome. |
|
Masset et al. [40] | France | Identify foods using measures of sustainability dimensions | Foods such as meat and fish had the biggest negative impact on the environment. A low nutritional quality and a high price characterised food that had a high environmental impacts. |
|
Peano et al. [41] | Italy | To develop an indicator–based tool to monitor sustainability in agric-food systems using the Slow Food Presidia project approach | The Slow Food Presidia project increased all the dimensions of sustainability and, in particular, socioeconomic and cultural capital by preserving the environmental quality aspects of the food products. |
|
Van Dooren et al. [42] | International | Explore the relationship between nutritionally healthy and ecologically sustainable diets | Meat and dairy consumption were mostly responsible for low sustainability scores. |
|
EAT Initiative, Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)and Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) [43] | International | Develop integrated indicators for Sustainable Food Systems and Healthy diets in the Post-2015 Development Agenda | Integrated indicators were developed in three thematic categories: sufficient, nutritional, varied and safe diets; climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable food production; and resilient and equitable food system. |
|
Gill et al. [44] | Brazil, China and India | Evaluate the environmental effects of dietary changes consistent with the nutrition shifts | Increases in cereal supply in China and India and beef production in Brazil increased GHGEs and had an effect on the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles, respectively. |
|
Ruini et al. [17] | Italy | Present the Barilla centre for Food and Nutrition’s “Double Pyramid Model” in order to raise people’s awareness of the impact of the environment on food | A diet based on the principles of the Mediterranean Diet (MD), as suggested by Double Pyramid, generates a lower environmental impact compared to diets that are heavily based on daily meat consumption. Eating lower on the pyramid lowers the environmental impact. |
|
Aleksandrowicz et al. [45] | International | Review the evidence on changes on sustainable dietary pattern in relation to dietary intake on the environment variables | An animal-based restriction was directly related to a decrease in environmental footprints, and a dietary transition yielded a moderate gain in the all-cause mortality risk. |
|
Dernini et al. [8] | International | Assessment of sustainability of diets based on the MD | A standard set of information (definition, methodology, background, data sources, limitations of the indicators and references) was provided for thirteen nutrition indicators identified. |
|
Immacolata and Augusto [46] | Italy | Measured environmental sustainability in the food systems | The application of the method of LCA for the reduction of environmental shocks were related to the life of the product chosen (olive oil), and the decisions were related to interventions on processes, products and activities. |
|
Mertens et al. [47] | Netherlands | To categorize and summarize the different approaches to operationalise the health aspects of environmentally sustainable diets | Five approaches to operationalize the health aspects of the diet were identified: food item replacement; dietary guidelines; dietary quality scores; diet modelling techniques; and a diet-related health impact analysis. |
|
Pires et al. [48] | International | Evaluate how indicators related to water use and management perform against a set of sustainability criteria | Twenty-four indicators comply with the majority of the sustainability criteria; 59 indicators comply with two sustainability criteria, while 86 indicators fulfill just one of the four sustainability criteria; and one indicator does not fulfil any of the sustainability criteria. |
|
Pellicer-Martinez and Martinez [49] | Spain | The use of a water footprint (WP) to assess environmental sustainability in water resources at the river basin level | “Blue water” use is not sustainable due to a generalized overexploitation of aquifers, and surface water pollution is mainly caused by phosphate concentration. |
|
Seconda et al. [50] | France | Draw up a comparative description of four diets differing in the level of organic food consumption and the adherence to the Mediterranean Diet (MD) using multidisciplinary indicators to assess the sustainability of these diets | The adherence to nutritional recommendations was highest among the organic consumers and Mediterranean diet followers, lower among conventional consumers and Mediterranean diet followers and the lowest among conventional consumers and non-Mediterranean diet followers. |
|
Dooren et al. [51] | Global | Identify a set of important indicators to assess the most pressing environmental impacts of diets | At the global and national levels, the planetary boundaries and the footprint approaches were respectively used to identify indicators, while the LCA was used at the product (micro) level. |
|
Kramer et al. [18] | Netherlands | Measure the performance of food products in a sustainable diet based on the balance of their contribution to nutrient intake and environmental impact, within the context of the Dutch diet | Increasing amounts of dairy in the optimized diet were associated with a steep increase in the environmental impact and in meat. Bread and breakfast cereals are sources of nutrients with a better environmental performance compared to dairy or meat within the context of the Dutch diet. |
|
Barre et al. [26] | France | Assess the impact of nutrient bioavailability and coproduction link considerations on dietary changes needed to promote a sustainable diet with a special focus on meat | The “fruits and vegetables” and “starches” quantities increased in all the modelled diets compared to the mean observed French diet. |
|
Osita et al. [52] | Japan | Examined the impact of changes in a Japanese diet from 1961 to 2011 and the effect of alternative diets on the nitrogen footprints of food | The 1975 Japanese diet, a balanced omnivorous diet, was reported to delay aging, with a protein content similar to the current level, and to reduce the current food nitrogen footprint (15.2kg N) to 12.6 kg N, which is comparable to the level in the protein diet (12.3 kg N). |
|
Reference | Objective of the Paper | Main Findings | Main Indicators/Index Identified | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Schacht et al. [53] | Norway | Determine consumers’ preference of fish with different origins and management practices | Farmed and wild salmon were least accepted while fish fed with a feed of plant origin were more accepted compared to other fishes. |
|
Pearson [54] | Australia | Determine the consumers’ dietary preferences in choosing organic foods | Greater than half (54%) of the respondents expressed readiness to increase the organic consumption, and 3% of them reported a high anticipation in the purchases of organic foods. |
|
WHO [55] | International | Measured health indicators of sustainable agriculture, food and nutrition security | The health indicators identified and linked to nutritional status, food quality and trade policies and programmes. |
|
Dixon and Isaacs [56] | Australia | Assess consumer views on sustainable and healthy diets | Food purchase decisions were mainly influenced by cost, availability and family responsibility and not necessarily by sustainability or healthy foods. |
|
Luckett et al. [57] | Malawi | To estimate and examine the role of household production and market acquisitions in providing dietary diversity to farm households in Malawi | Households further from roads and population centres had lower diversification (p < 0.01) and spread through comparatively more of their diversity from household production than households closer to market centres (p < 0.01). |
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Harry et al. [58] | Australia | Assess the dietary assessment method of sustainable dietary behaviour using a mobile food record (mFR) application | The use of mFR images for assessing fruit and vegetables, eggs, red meat and poultry was developed and tested for validity and reliability. |
|
Benedetti et al. [59] | Italy | Assess the current dietary patterns among Italians, and analyse the effect of socioeconomic and lifestyle factors on Mediterranean diet constancy | Of all the socioeconomic characteristics, education proved to have a central role in determining the adherence to MD. Individuals with at least 8 years of education increase from the lowest (39%) to the highest (44%) category of the Mediterranean score. |
|
Dernini et al. [60] | International | Assessment of the sustainability of diets based on the MD | A standard set of information (definition, methodology, background, data sources, limitations of the indicators and references) was provided for thirteen nutrition indicators identified. |
|
Benedetti et al. [61] | Italy | Determine the current food patterns of Italians using a composite indicator, and establish which of the indicators had a higher adherence to Mediterranean diet in Italy | Education, the tendency to practice sports on a regular basis and the ability to have breakfast and lunch at home positively impact people’s adherence to the Mediterranean diet. |
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Springmann et al. [16] | Global | Examined three different approaches to sustainable diets. | Animal-source replacement with plant-based ones were efficient, especially in improving nutrient levels, decreasing untimely mortality and lowering the environmental impacts. |
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Lachat et al. [62] | Global | Assessed the relationship between food biodiversity and diet quality of women and young children using diet species richness for wet and dry seasons | The dietary species richness showed stronger and more consistent associations with the diet quality indicators (Mean Adequacy Ratios and Dietary Diversity Scores) than Simpson’s index of Diversity index and Functional Diversity. |
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Vieux et al. [19] | Europe | Determine if the dietary changes needed to improve diet sustainability are similar across some European countries | Nutritional adequacy was not necessarily associated with a reduced GHGE, and maximum GHGE reductions attainable were filed from 62 to 78% with a minimal weight change of 2.8 Kg/day from the observed diet. |
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Reference | Objective of the Paper | Main Findings | Main Indicators/Index Identified | |
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FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) [63] | International | Assess sustainability in the Food and agriculture sector | The sustainability monitoring and assessment routine (SMART) was developed to be used by companies and the agriculture sector. |
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Jensen and Poulsen [64] | Denmark | Assess the economic effects for the New Nordic diet consumer compared with an average Danish Diet | The New Nordic Diet was about 17% more expensive than the Average Danish Diet when the energy content of the diet was adjusted and 25% more costly when there was no adjustment. |
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Lombardini and Lankoski [65] | Finland | Assess the consequences of forced food choice restriction in schools on students’ diet | The effects were manifested in a decrease in the number of people who took part in school lunches and in the quantity of food taken to the plate and in an increase in plate waste. |
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Peano et al. [41] | Italy | Develop an indicator-based tool to monitor sustainability in agric-food systems using the Slow Food Presidia project approach | The Slow Food Presidia project increased all dimensions of sustainability and, in particular, socioeconomic and cultural capital by preserving the environmental quality aspects of the food products. |
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Barosh et al. [66] | Australia | Assess the affordability of a typical compared to a healthy and sustainable food basket in Greater Western Sydney, Australia | Healthy and sustainable food basket was more costly than the typical basket in all five socioeconomic neighbourhoods studied. |
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IOM (Institute of Medicine) and NRC (National Research Council) [67] | USA | Assess the social and economic effects of the U.S. system | Major classes of social and economic effects that can be linked to characteristics of the U.S. food system were outlined. |
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Gustafson et al. [68] | USA | Develop a methodology on the concept of sustainable nutrition security using different metrics | Seven metrics for characterizing sustainable nutrition outcomes of food systems were proposed and developed using multiple indicators. |
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Barone et al. [69] | Brazil | Investigating the association between sustainability and foods, and to identify consumer’s perspective about the characteristics of sustainable and unsustainable foods | The terms “healthy diet” and “sustainable production” stood out in the sustainable diets concept. A higher educational level of the participants linked food to the natural environment and sustainability while individuals with lower educational levels associated food with source, nutrition and health. |
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Nutrition and Health Indicators | Environment Indicators | Socio-Economic Indicators |
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Eme, P.E.; Douwes, J.; Kim, N.; Foliaki, S.; Burlingame, B. Review of Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Diets and Potential for Development of Harmonised Indicators. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071184
Eme PE, Douwes J, Kim N, Foliaki S, Burlingame B. Review of Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Diets and Potential for Development of Harmonised Indicators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(7):1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071184
Chicago/Turabian StyleEme, Paul Eze, Jeroen Douwes, Nicholas Kim, Sunia Foliaki, and Barbara Burlingame. 2019. "Review of Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Diets and Potential for Development of Harmonised Indicators" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 7: 1184. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071184