Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Parenting Styles
2.2.2. School Performance
2.2.3. Self-Esteem
2.2.4. Psychosocial Maturity
2.2.5. Emotional Maladjustment
2.3. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Parenting Style Groups
3.2. Multivariate Analyses
3.3. Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem Outcomes
3.4. Parenting Styles and Psychosocial Maturity Outcomes
3.5. Parenting Styles and Emotional Maladjustment Outcomes
3.6. School Performance
3.7. Sex and Age
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total | Authoritative | Indulgent | Authoritarian | Neglectful | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | 2069 | 451 | 577 | 591 | 450 |
Percent | 100 | 21.8 | 27.9 | 28.6 | 21.7 |
Warmth | |||||
Mean | 67.72 | 72.82 | 73.71 | 55.35 | 57.35 |
SD | 11.42 | 4.18 | 4.45 | 10.02 | 9.29 |
Strictness | |||||
Mean | 34.68 | 39.87 | 28.17 | 41.95 | 28.28 |
SD | 8.50 | 5.13 | 5.54 | 5.76 | 5.59 |
Source of Variation | Λ | F | dfbetween | dferror | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(A) Parenting Styles a | 0.759 | 21.09 | 27 | 5751.1 | <0.001 |
(B) School performance b | 0.980 | 10.83 | 18 | 3938.0 | <0.001 |
(C) Sex c | 0.888 | 27.57 | 9 | 1969.0 | <0.001 |
(D) Age d | 0.830 | 14.00 | 27 | 5751.1 | <0.001 |
A × B | 0.972 | 1.05 | 54 | 10,044.6 | 0.373 |
A × C | 0.979 | 1.38 | 27 | 5751.1 | 0.090 |
A × D | 0.933 | 1.69 | 81 | 12,733.7 | <0.001 |
B × C | 0.985 | 1.66 | 18 | 3938.0 | 0.039 |
B × D | 0.938 | 2.35 | 54 | 10,044.6 | <0.001 |
C × D | 0.979 | 1.52 | 27 | 5751.1 | 0.042 |
A × B × C | 0.974 | 0.96 | 54 | 10,044.6 | 0.560 |
A × B × D | 0.917 | 1.05 | 162 | 15,964.9 | 0.305 |
A × C × D | 0.961 | 0.97 | 81 | 12,733.7 | 0.561 |
B × C × D | 0.980 | 0.88 | 45 | 8810.9 | 0.696 |
A × B × C × D | 0.930 | 1.07 | 135 | 15,334.8 | 0.283 |
Socialization Outcomes | Parenting Style | School Performance | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Authoritative | Indulgent | Authoritarian | Neglectful | F(3, 1977) | Low | Medium | High | F(3, 1977) | |
Self-esteem | |||||||||
Academic/professional | 7.82 1 | 7.92 1 | 7.09 2 | 7.12 2 | 33.42 *** | 6.82 3 | 7.67 2 | 8.01 1 | 81.65 *** |
(1.35) | (1.20) | (1.68) | (1.51) | (1.78) | (1.22) | (1.17) | |||
Emotional | 5.59 2 | 5.95 1 | 5.39 2 | 5.63 2 | 8.04 *** | 5.60 | 5.52 | 5.86 | 0.81 |
(1.78) | (1.82) | (1.71) | (1.67) | (1.68) | (1.77) | (1.81) | |||
Family | 8.54 1 | 8.73 1 | 7.08 2,b | 7.49 2,a | 150.16 *** | 7.60 2 | 8.12 1 | 8.12 1 | 9.00 *** |
(1.02) | (0.94) | (1.58) | (1.45) | (1.53) | (1.38) | (1.44) | |||
Psychosocial maturity | |||||||||
Self-competence | 4.00 1 | 4.04 1 | 3.66 2 | 3.62 2 | 65.80 *** | 3.67 2 | 3.88 1 | 3.95 1 | 21.98 *** |
(0.49) | (0.49) | (0.59) | (0.57) | (0.69) | (0.64) | (0.68) | |||
Social-competence | 4.00 1 | 4.04 1 | 3.72 2 | 3.66 2 | 36.56 *** | 3.78 | 3.93 | 3.86 | 1.14 |
(0.58) | (0.62) | (0.70) | (0.68) | (0.69) | (0.64) | (0.68) | |||
Empathy | 4.03 1 | 4.12 1 | 3.81 2 | 3.76 2 | 45.41 *** | 3.78 2 | 4.02 1 | 3.99 1 | 15.58 *** |
(0.70) | (0.65) | (0.71) | (0.66) | (0.63) | (0.54) | (0.54) | |||
Emotional maladjustment | |||||||||
Nervousness | 2.29 2 | 2.18 3 | 2.57 1 | 2.50 1 | 26.01 *** | 2.47 1 | 2.35 2 | 2.34 2 | 4.62 * |
(0.61) | (0.63) | (0.64) | (0.61) | (0.66) | (0.62) | (0.65) | |||
Emotional-instability | 1.79 1,b | 1.67 2 | 1.92 1,a | 1.90 1 | 9.04 *** | 2.61 1 | 2.55 | 2.50 2 | 3.77 * |
(0.47) | (0.42) | (0.53) | (0.49) | (0.55) | (0.56) | (0.57) | |||
Hostility | 2.56 2 | 2.44 3 | 2.65 1 | 2.57 1 | 21.03 *** | 1.91 1 | 1.78 2 | 1.76 2 | 6.76 ** |
(0.47) | (0.44) | (0.56) | (0.47) | (0.53) | (0.45) | (0.48) |
Socialization Outcomes | Sex | Age | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | Male | F(1, 1977) | 12–17 Years | 18–35 Years | 36–59 Years | 60–75 Years | F(1, 1977) | |
Self-esteem | ||||||||
Academic/professional | 7.63 | 7.29 | 8.51 ** | 7.10 3 | 7.41 2 | 8.10 1 | 7.45 2 | 38.81 *** |
(1.43) | (1.57) | (1.59) | (1.36) | (1.19) | (1.66) | |||
Emotional | 5.28 | 6.14 | 96.48 *** | 5.37 2 | 5.57 2 | 5.88 1 | 5.88 1 | 7.32 *** |
(1.72) | (1.68) | (1.68) | (1.76) | (1.80) | (1.75) | |||
Family | 8.08 | 7.76 | 7.82 ** | 8.04 1 | 8.09 1 | 7.93 1 | 7.61 2 | 16.71 *** |
(1.45) | (1.47) | (1.51) | (1.47) | (1.37) | (1.47) | |||
Psychosocial maturity | ||||||||
Self-competence | 3.85 | 3.81 | 0.43 | 3.69 2 | 3.84 1 | 3.93 1 | 3.91 1 | 17.94 *** |
(0.65) | (0.69) | (0.56) | (0.55) | (0.54) | (0.62) | |||
Social-competence | 3.91 | 3.78 | 8.90 ** | 3.93 1 | 3.89 1 | 3.83 | 3.72 2 | 7.58 *** |
(0.65) | (0.69) | (0.66) | (0.66) | (0.64) | (0.73) | |||
Empathy | 4.05 | 3.77 | 94.91 *** | 3.92 2 | 4.01 1 | 3.94 2 | 3.83 2 | 9.13 *** |
(0.55) | (0.58) | (0.55) | (0.55) | (0.59) | (0.65) | |||
Emotional maladjustment | ||||||||
Nervousness | 2.43 | 2.32 | 20.64 *** | 2.41 | 2.40 | 2.31 | 2.41 | 1.30 |
(0.66) | (0.61) | (0.63) | (0.65) | (0.65) | (0.64) | |||
Emotional | 2.61 | 2.49 | 15.55 *** | 2.64 1 | 2.55 | 2.49 2 | 2.52 2 | 5.24 ** |
instability | (0.56) | (0.55) | (0.52) | (0.59) | (0.57) | (0.55) | ||
Hostility | 1.78 | 1.87 | 7.77 ** | 1.89 1 | 1.84 a | 1.74 2,b | 1.76 2 | 7.01 *** |
(0.47) | (0.51) | (0.50) | (0.49) | (0.45) | (0.51) |
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Garcia, O.F.; Serra, E. Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071089
Garcia OF, Serra E. Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(7):1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071089
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcia, Oscar F., and Emilia Serra. 2019. "Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 7: 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071089