Factors Associated with Levels of Latrine Completion and Consequent Latrine Use in Northern Ghana
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- How do the levels of latrine completion relate to latrine use?
- (2)
- How are socio-demographic characteristics of households linked to levels of latrine completion?
- (3)
- What factors may deter households of different latrine completion levels from using their latrines?
- (4)
- How do psychosocial factors differ between households’ latrine completion levels?
- (5)
- How do reported reasons for latrine building differ between households’ latrine completion levels?
2. Methods
2.1. Research Context and Sampling
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Latrine Construction
2.3.2. Latrine Usage
2.3.3. Socio-Demographic Factors
2.3.4. Psychosocial Determinants
2.3.5. Level of Latrine Construction
2.4. Data Analysis Procedure
3. Results
3.1. Level 1 (L1): Only Pit Is Dug
3.2. Level 2 (L2): Pit Is Dug and Superstructure Constructed (Pit + Superstructure)
3.3. Level 3 (L3): Pit Is Dug, Superstructure Constructed and Latrine Is Roofed (Pit + Superstructure + Roof)
3.4. Level 4 (L4): Pit Is Dug, Superstructure Constructed, Latrine Is Roofed and Has Door (Pit + Superstructure + Roof + Door)
3.5. Level 5: Pit Is Dug, Superstructure Constructed, Latrines Is Roofed, Latrine Has Door and a Vent Pipe (Pit + Superstructure + Roof +Door + Vent Pipe)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Defecation Habits | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Description of levels | only pit | pit + superstructure | pit + superstructure + roof | pit + superstructure + roof + door | pit + superstructure + roof + door + vent pipe |
n | 362 | 108 | 96 | 270 | 687 |
Use latrine exclusively | 5.2% | 13.0% | 53.1% | 95.6% | 94.3% |
Defecate in the open exclusively | 94.8% A,*** | 87.0% B,*** | 46.9% C,*** | 4.4% | 5.7% |
Defecation Habits | Level-Superstructure | Level-Roof | Level-Privacy |
---|---|---|---|
Description of Level | (pit + superstructure) | (pit + superstructure + roof) | (pit + superstructure + roof + door + vent pipe) |
n | 470 | 96 | 957 |
Use latrine exclusively | 7.0% | 53.10% | 94.70% |
Defecate in the open | 93.0% A,*** | 46.9% B,*** | 5.3% |
Characteristics of Respondents and Households | Level-Superstructure | Level-Roof | Level-Privacy |
---|---|---|---|
n | 470 | 96 | 957 |
Gender | |||
Males | 62.80% | 67.70% | 66.60% |
Age | 43.79 (16.17) | 44.10 (16.25) | 45.89 (15.96) |
Household size | 9.20 (5.22) | 9.93 (4.85) | 10.26 (6.41) |
Men | 3.37 (2.40) | 3.74 (2.27) | 3.54 (2.22) |
Women | 3.71 (2.58) | 4.41 (3.21) | 3.89 (2.80) |
children under age 5 years | 2.39 (2.13) | 2.69 (2.32) | 2.54 (2.80) |
Income (Ghana Cedis) | 164.65 (259.109) A,* | 102.37 (125.36) B,* | 157.35 (263.92) |
Are you able to read and write | 17.00% | 13.50% | 14.40% |
Marital Status | |||
Single married | 55.70% | 50.00% | 51.80% |
Single | 9.80% | 8.30% | 6.10% |
Widowed | 6.60% | 8.30% | 6.40% |
Cohabiting | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.40% |
Divorced/separated | 1.10% | 0.00% | 0.50% |
Polygamy married | 26.80% | 33.30% | 34.80% |
Factors that may Deter Latrine Use | Level-Superstructure | Level-Roof | Level-Privacy |
---|---|---|---|
n | 470 | 96 | 957 |
What are the reasons against the use of your own latrine? C | |||
Smell | 22.20% | 19.50% | 18.20% |
Too dirty/no hygiene | 25.40% | 12.40% | 18.30% |
Fear of animals | 1.70% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
Fear of falling inside | 0.40% | 0.00% | 0.30% |
Queue of people | 0.20% | 1.00% | 0.70% |
Latrine is damaged | 30.20% | 33.30% | 32.00% |
Full pit | 7.60% | 7.30% | 7.40% |
Other reasons | 4.00% | 9.40% | 5.20% |
No reason | 17.90% | 16.70% | 16.40% |
How clean is your own latrine? D | 3.89 (1.13) | 4.25 (1.06) B,** | 4.56 (0.74) |
Cleanliness of latrine (Field observation) C | |||
Seems unused | 14.80% | 14.60% | 2.60% |
Clean: no dirt, no faeces | 2.80% | 18.80% | 55.30% |
Somewhat clean. Some dirt but no faeces | 1.90% | 20.80% | 35.70% |
Dirty: faeces on slab | 0.90% | 6.30% | 4.70% |
Still under construction | 79.60% | 39.60% | 1.70% |
RANAS Psychosocial Determinants | Level-Superstructure | Level-Roof | Level-Privacy |
---|---|---|---|
n | 470 | 96 | 957 |
RANAS | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) |
Risk | |||
Generally, how high do you think is the chance/risk that you get diarrhoea? | 3.29 (1.41) A,* | 2.92 (1.46) | 2.89 (1.52) |
Imagine that you have diarrhoea, how severe would be the impact on your life? | 4.56 (0.83) | 4.59 (0.80) | 4.57 (0.78) |
Latrine construction attitudes | |||
How proud are you of your own latrine? | 4.78 (0.59) | 4.80 (0.49) | 4.79 (0.56) |
Do you think you are more respected by your community because you have an own latrine? | 4.71 (0.65) | 4.56 (0.80) | 4.68 (0.69) |
If you construct a latrine, do you think you are more vulnerable for envy? | 2.55 (1.60) | 2.32 (1.45) | 2.31 (1.58) |
Do you think that constructing your own latrine is expensive? | 3.86 (1.23) A,* | 3.54 (1.39) | 3.58 (1.35) |
How difficult is it to find the money to construct your own latrine? | 3.99 (1.21) | 3.63 (1.28) | 3.66 (1.38) |
How difficult is it to find the time and effort to construct your own latrine? | 2.52 (1.61) | 2.84 (1.59) | 2.68 (1.58) |
Latrine construction norms | |||
When you constructed your latrine, how many members of your community already had one? | 2.22 (1.24) | 2.30 (1.15) | 2.02 (1.20) |
How many of your relatives within your community constructed an own latrine? | 3.18 (1.57) A,*** | 4.24 (1.17) | 4.35 (1.19) |
How many members of your community constructed an own latrine? | 3.42 (1.40) A,*** | 4.25 (1.07) B,* | 4.47 (0.92) |
How much do people who are important to you (e.g., family, parents, friends) approve that you construct a latrine? | 4.43 (0.97) | 4.30 (1.13) B,* | 4.45 (0.96) |
People who are leaders in the community (e.g., opinion leader, Chief of village, etc.) how much do they promote that you construct an own latrine? | 4.23 (1.28) | 4.22 (1.32) B,** | 4.48 (1.00) |
How much do you feel a personal obligation to construct an own latrine? | 4.52 (0.93) | 4.56 (0.87) | 4.51 (0.96) |
Abilities | |||
Latrine construction | |||
How confident are you that you can construct a latrine even if this is difficult (e.g., gathering the materials)? | 4.30 (1.02) | 4.50 (0.75) | 4.52 (0.77) |
How confident are you that you could finish the construction of a latrine even if problems arise (e.g., you run out of money)? | 4.12 (1.21) | 4.24 (1.16) B,** | 4.48 (0.83) |
Imagine that the latrine got damaged. How confident are you that you will be able to repair the latrine again? | 4.54 (0.84) | 4.55 (0.77) | 4.66 (0.72) |
Self-Regulation | |||
How committed are you to construct your own latrine? | 4.65 (0.69) | 4.76 (0.45) | 4.77 (0.51) |
Reasons for Latrine Construction | Level-Superstructure | Level-Roof | Level-Privacy |
---|---|---|---|
n | 470 | 96 | 957 |
Why did you construct a latrine? C | |||
Privacy | 0.60% | 10.20% | 23.70% |
Security | 0.40% | 2.10% | 5.50% |
Health | 3.60% | 16.30% | 31.60% |
Hygiene | 0.20% | 6.20% | 15.10% |
Comfort | 0.20% | 1.00% | 4.20% |
Because of the community meeting done here | 0% | 0.00% | 1.70% |
Because some people came and told us to do so | 0.40% | 6.20% | 7.30% |
Open defecation is harmful | 0.20% | 4.20% | 8.70% |
How did you know how to construct a latrine? C | |||
Watched other members of the community | 0.60% | 9.30% | 24.60% |
Saw it in another community | 0.40% | 2.00% | 12.20% |
Someone came from outside and told me | 1.90% | 21.90% | 35% |
I just tried without knowledge | 0.40% | 4.20% | 8.80% |
Someone else did it for me | 1.10% | 3.10% | 9.60% |
My father/husband did the construction | 0.40% | 7.30% | 9.60% |
Who in your household made the final decision to construct a toilet? C | |||
Head of Household | 77.40% | 79.20% | 80.30% |
Family all together | 13.20% | 8.30% | 9.30% |
Wife | 0.60% | 2.10% | 3.40% |
Children | 3.60% | 1.00% | 3.40% |
Land lord | 1.90% | 1.00% | 1.00% |
Other | 3.20% | 8.30% | 4.80% |
Do you have a plan how you can construct a latrine if you are running out of materials? C | |||
Collect local materials | 30.90% | 41.40% | 32.80% |
Buy materials somewhere | 30.20% | 15.50% | 27.00% |
Go for local dealers | 0.20% | 1% | 0.60% |
Borrow material from others | 7.80% | 11.50% | 11.90% |
Ask relatives for help | 3.80% | 8.30% | 5.50% |
Sell animals/farm products to buy more materials | 12.00% | 11.50% | 15.20% |
Produce the materials by myself | 2.30% | 1.00% | 1.70% |
No plan | 12.80% | 9.40% | 4.60% |
How much did the construction of your latrine cost in Cedi (GHS)? | 338.0 (278.65) | 250.18 (277.80) | 363.45 (560.36) |
Did you receive any subsidy for the construction of your own latrine within the last year? | |||
Yes | 2.80% | 6.30% | 14.80% |
No | 97.20% | 93.80% | 85.20% |
What kind of subsidy did you receive? C | |||
Materials | 2.30% | 6.30% | 12.00% |
Labour | 0.40% | 0.00% | 0.90% |
Other | 0.00% | 0.00% | 1.80% |
Who provided you with this subsidy? | |||
Government | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% |
NGO | 2.30% | 6.30% | 13.70% |
People from other communities | 0.20% | 0.00% | 0.50% |
Family | 0.00% | 0.00% | 40.00% |
Other | 0.20% | 0.00% | 0.10% |
How many times did the facilitator follow up in your community | 3.02 (1.22) | 3.20 (1.02) B,* | 3.53 (1.20) |
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Share and Cite
Nunbogu, A.M.; Harter, M.; Mosler, H.-J. Factors Associated with Levels of Latrine Completion and Consequent Latrine Use in Northern Ghana. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060920
Nunbogu AM, Harter M, Mosler H-J. Factors Associated with Levels of Latrine Completion and Consequent Latrine Use in Northern Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(6):920. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060920
Chicago/Turabian StyleNunbogu, Abraham Marshall, Miriam Harter, and Hans-Joachim Mosler. 2019. "Factors Associated with Levels of Latrine Completion and Consequent Latrine Use in Northern Ghana" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 6: 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060920
APA StyleNunbogu, A. M., Harter, M., & Mosler, H.-J. (2019). Factors Associated with Levels of Latrine Completion and Consequent Latrine Use in Northern Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6), 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060920