Traditional Korean Medicine-Based Forest Therapy Programs Providing Electrophysiological Benefits for Elderly Individuals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. FTPs
2.2. Sasang Constitutional Medicine
2.3. Subjects and Study Protocol
- not diagnosed with dementia
- without any restrictions on outdoor activity, including walking for more than three hours
- able to communicate and complete the self-reporting questionnaires
- understand the purpose of the study and having voluntarily submitted a consent form.
2.4. Electrophysiological Measurements
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographics
3.2. Changes in Electrophysiology According to EEG, Bioimpedance, and HRV
3.2.1. Resting-State EEG
3.2.2. Bioimpedance
3.2.3. Heart Rate Variability
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
EEG Variable | Control | BP | WP | BP–CN | WP–CN | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SC Type | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |||||||||
MEF [Hz] | TE | 8.49 | −0.59 ** (−1.01, −0.18) | 0.74 | 8.62 | 0.05 (−0.46, 0.56) | 0.06 | 8.59 | −0.60 ** (−1.04, −0.15) | 0.67 | 0.65 (−0.10, 1.39) | 0.53 | −0.00 (−0.65, 0.64) | 0.00 |
SE | 8.36 | −0.77 (−1.69, 0.15) | 0.97 | 8.61 | −0.10 (−0.93, 0.72) | 0.13 | 8.06 | −0.37 (−1.06, 0.31) | 0.41 | 0.67 (−0.76, 2.09) | 0.28 | 0.40 (−0.84, 1.63) | 0.21 | |
SY | 8.48 | 0.24 (−0.53, 1.01) | 0.31 | 8.08 | −0.08 (−0.61, 0.45) | 0.10 | 8.30 | −0.05 (−0.77, 0.68) | 0.06 | −0.32 (−1.40, 0.76) | 0.19 | −0.29 (−1.48, 0.91) | 0.14 | |
TE | 2.85 | −0.07 (−0.33, 0.19) | 0.13 | 2.94 | −0.13 (−0.45, 0.19) | 0.25 | 2.62 | −0.23 (−0.52, 0.05) | 0.41 | −0.06 (−0.53, 0.41) | 0.08 | −0.16 (−0.57, 0.25) | 0.24 | |
SE | 2.10 | −0.54 (−1.14, 0.05) | 1.06 | 3.36 | 0.71 ** (0.18, 1.24) | 1.35 | 2.71 | −0.35 (−0.78, 0.07) | 0.63 | 1.26 ** (0.32, 2.20) | 0.80 | 0.19 (−0.59, 0.97) | 0.16 | |
SY | 2.62 | 0.01 (−0.47, 0.50) | 0.02 | 2.91 | −0.44 * (−0.77, −0.11) | 0.84 | 2.64 | 0.09 (−0.37, 0.54) | 0.17 | −0.45 (−1.13, 0.23) | 0.43 | 0.08 (−0.68, 0.83) | 0.06 | |
TE | 1.96 | −0.15 (−0.44, 0.14) | 0.27 | 2.38 | −0.01 (−0.36, 0.35) | 0.01 | 2.02 | 0.03 (−0.28, 0.34) | 0.05 | 0.15 (−0.38, 0.67) | 0.17 | 0.18 (−0.26, 0.63) | 0.24 | |
SE | 1.15 | −0.48 (−1.14, 0.18) | 0.84 | 2.49 | 0.79 ** (0.22, 1.36) | 1.38 | 2.22 | 0.01 (−0.45, 0.48) | 0.02 | 1.26 * (0.25, 2.28) | 0.74 | 0.49 (−0.38, 1.37) | 0.37 | |
SY | 2.01 | 0.19 (−0.34, 0.73) | 0.36 | 2.16 | −0.59 ** (−0.96, −0.23) | 1.04 | 2.12 | 0.43 (−0.08, 0.93) | 0.76 | −0.79 * (−1.53, −0.04) | 0.69 | 0.23 (−0.60, 1.06) | 0.17 | |
ATR | TE | 1.28 | −0.05 (−0.14, 0.05) | 0.26 | 1.20 | −0.03 (−0.14, 0.09) | 0.15 | 1.25 | −0.17 ** (−0.27, −0.07) | 0.84 | 0.02 (−0.15, 0.19) | 0.08 | −0.12 (−0.27, 0.03) | 0.49 |
SE | 1.24 | −0.12 (−0.33, 0.10) | 0.63 | 1.17 | −0.03 (−0.22, 0.16) | 0.18 | 1.18 | −0.13 (−0.28, 0.03) | 0.62 | 0.08 (−0.25, 0.41) | 0.15 | −0.01 (−0.29, 0.27) | 0.03 | |
SY | 1.14 | −0.05 (−0.23, 0.13) | 0.28 | 1.17 | 0.05 (−0.07, 0.18) | 0.29 | 1.14 | −0.12 (−0.28, 0.05) | 0.62 | 0.11 (−0.14, 0.35) | 0.28 | −0.07 (−0.34, 0.21) | 0.14 |
Bioimpedance | Control | BP | WP | BP−CN | WP−CN | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | SC Type | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | ||||||||
BFM | TE | 23.53 | 0.86 (−0.39, 2.10) | 0.37 | 25.31 | 2.09 ** (0.61, 3.56) | 0.90 | 22.67 | 0.89 (−0.44, 2.21) | 0.33 | 1.23 (−0.87, 3.33) | 0.35 | 0.03 (−1.90, 1.95) | 0.01 |
SE | 14.26 | 0.03 (−2.74, 2.79) | 0.01 | 16.65 | −0.39 (−2.55, 1.78) | 0.16 | 12.88 | −0.42 (−2.42, 1.57) | 0.16 | −0.41 (−4.32, 3.49) | 0.06 | −0.45 (−4.00, 3.10) | 0.08 | |
SY | 14.47 | −1.11 (−3.37, 1.15) | 0.49 | 16.89 | −0.91 (−2.43, 0.62) | 0.38 | 15.02 | −2.48 * (−4.61, −0.35) | 0.95 | 0.20 (−2.80, 3.21) | 0.04 | −1.37 (−4.73, 1.99) | 0.24 | |
PhA_body | TE | 5.55 | 0.27 ** (0.08, 0.46) | 0.76 | 4.78 | 0.51 *** (0.29, 0.73) | 1.45 | 5.53 | 0.11 (−0.09, 0.32) | 0.28 | 0.24 (−0.10, 0.58) | 0.42 | −0.16 (−0.45, 0.13) | 0.32 |
SE | 4.63 | 0.04 (−0.40, 0.47) | 0.10 | 5.04 | 0.60 *** (0.29, 0.92) | 1.73 | 5.13 | 0.23 (−0.05, 0.51) | 0.63 | 0.57 (−0.05, 1.18) | 0.56 | 0.19 (−0.36, 0.74) | 0.22 | |
SY | 5.33 | 0.52 ** (0.19, 0.85) | 1.59 | 4.98 | 0.41 *** (0.19, 0.64) | 1.17 | 5.47 | 0.30 * (0.00, 0.59) | 0.82 | −0.11 (−0.56, 0.34) | 0.16 | −0.23 (−0.73, 0.28) | 0.27 | |
PhA_arm | TE | 5.40 | 0.25 ** (0.07, 0.43) | 0.73 | 4.58 | 0.87 *** (0.64, 1.10) | 2.41 | 5.75 | −0.08 (−0.30, 0.15) | 0.17 | 0.63 *** (0.28, 0.97) | 1.08 | −0.32 * (−0.62, −0.03) | 0.66 |
SE | 4.83 | 0.09 (−0.31, 0.49) | 0.26 | 4.68 | 1.11 *** (0.80, 1.42) | 3.19 | 5.36 | 0.05 (−0.22, 0.32) | 0.14 | 1.02 *** (0.45, 1.59) | 1.09 | −0.04 (−0.58, 0.49) | 0.05 | |
SY | 5.24 | 0.50 ** (0.18, 0.82) | 1.57 | 4.73 | 0.77 *** (0.55, 0.99) | 2.17 | 5.63 | 0.09 (−0.21, 0.39) | 0.24 | 0.27 (−0.17, 0.71) | 0.39 | −0.41 (−0.91, 0.09) | 0.50 | |
PhA_leg | TE | 5.68 | 0.28 (−0.02, 0.58) | 0.50 | 4.98 | 0.05 (−0.29, 0.39) | 0.09 | 5.06 | 0.50 ** (0.19, 0.82) | 0.80 | −0.23 (−0.74, 0.27) | 0.27 | 0.22 (−0.26, 0.70) | 0.27 |
SE | 3.89 | −0.09 (−0.80, 0.62) | 0.14 | 5.45 | −0.16 (−0.68, 0.35) | 0.29 | 4.86 | 0.64 ** (0.20, 1.08) | 1.10 | −0.08 (−1.13, 0.97) | 0.04 | 0.73 (−0.15, 1.61) | 0.53 | |
SY | 5.32 | 0.56 * (0.04, 1.09) | 1.08 | 5.20 | −0.09 (−0.45, 0.28) | 0.15 | 4.87 | 0.66 ** (0.19, 1.12) | 1.15 | −0.65 (−1.37, 0.06) | 0.59 | 0.09 (−0.71, 0.89) | 0.07 |
HRV Variable | Control | BP | WP | BP–CN | WP–CN | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SC Type | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |||||||||
HF [ms2] | TE | 3.78 | −0.52 (−1.23, 0.20) | 0.56 | 4.18 | −0.29 (−0.93, 0.36) | 0.32 | 4.23 | 0.71 * (0.13, 1.30) | 0.69 | 0.23 (−0.85, 1.32) | 0.17 | 1.23 * (0.24, 2.22) | 1.02 |
SE | 3.93 | 1.14 (−0.19, 2.46) | 1.23 | 4.13 | −0.88 (−1.98, 0.23) | 0.93 | 4.80 | 0.06 (−0.84, 0.97) | 0.06 | −2.01 (−4.05, 0.03) | 0.79 | −1.07 (−2.81, 0.66) | 0.54 | |
SY | 4.09 | 0.31 (−0.71, 1.34) | 0.36 | 4.51 | −0.54 (−1.42, 0.34) | 0.56 | 5.58 | −0.13 (−1.15, 0.88) | 0.13 | −0.85 (−2.40, 0.69) | 0.45 | −0.45 (−2.14, 1.25) | 0.21 | |
LF [ms2] | TE | 3.21 | −0.06 (−0.83, 0.71) | 0.06 | 3.58 | 0.10 (−0.59, 0.79) | 0.11 | 3.76 | 0.51 (−0.11, 1.12) | 0.46 | 0.16 (−0.99, 1.32) | 0.11 | 0.56 (−0.50, 1.63) | 0.44 |
SE | 3.48 | 0.12 (−1.31, 1.54) | 0.12 | 4.53 | −0.62 (−1.83, 0.58) | 0.61 | 3.90 | 0.03 (−0.94, 0.99) | 0.02 | −0.74 (−2.99, 1.51) | 0.26 | −0.09 (−1.93, 1.75) | 0.04 | |
SY | 4.22 | 0.35 (−0.74, 1.44) | 0.38 | 4.45 | −0.40 (−1.38, 0.58) | 0.37 | 4.86 | −0.26 (−1.31, 0.80) | 0.25 | −0.75 (−2.41, 0.91) | 0.37 | −0.61 (−2.35, 1.14) | 0.28 | |
TP [ms2] | TE | 5.35 | −0.12 (−0.77, 0.54) | 0.14 | 5.61 | 0.45 (−0.15, 1.04) | 0.54 | 6.02 | 0.28 (−0.25, 0.82) | 0.30 | 0.56 (−0.42, 1.55) | 0.45 | 0.40 (−0.52, 1.33) | 0.36 |
SE | 5.11 | 0.55 (−0.68, 1.79) | 0.65 | 6.14 | −0.54 (−1.55, 0.48) | 0.62 | 6.04 | 0.18 (−0.64, 1.01) | 0.20 | −1.09 (−3.00, 0.81) | 0.46 | −0.37 (−1.97, 1.23) | 0.20 | |
SY | 5.97 | 0.09 (−0.85, 1.02) | 0.11 | 6.16 | −0.35 (−1.15, 0.46) | 0.39 | 6.69 | −0.21 (−1.10, 0.68) | 0.24 | −0.43 (−1.84, 0.98) | 0.25 | −0.30 (−1.79, 1.20) | 0.16 | |
HR [bpm] | TE | 68.63 | 3.42 (−2.49, 9.32) | 0.44 | 68.02 | 4.79 (−0.71, 10.29) | 0.62 | 64.79 | 1.73 (−3.17, 6.63) | 0.20 | 1.37 (−7.67, 10.41) | 0.12 | −1.69 (−10.04, 6.66) | 0.17 |
SE | 70.54 | 5.59 (−5.48, 16.67) | 0.72 | 70.60 | 0.93 (−8.46, 10.33) | 0.12 | 63.63 | 9.11 * (1.40, 16.82) | 1.07 | −4.66 (−21.76, 12.44) | 0.22 | 3.51 (−11.07, 18.10) | 0.21 | |
SY | 68.57 | 1.41 (−7.21, 10.02) | 0.19 | 65.27 | 9.45 * (2.13, 16.77) | 1.17 | 62.81 | 3.14 (−4.87, 11.15) | 0.40 | 8.04 (−4.87, 20.95) | 0.50 | 1.73 (−11.99, 15.46) | 0.10 |
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Dataset | Variable | Explanation |
---|---|---|
EEG | MEF [Hz] | Median frequency: the median frequency in the dominant intrinsic oscillatory frequency band of 4–13 Hz of the power spectrum |
Pα [μV2] | Alpha band power: The spectral power integrated over the frequency range between 8 and 13 Hz (natural logarithmic scale) | |
Pβ [μV2] | Beta band power: The spectral power integrated over the frequency range between 13 and 30 Hz (the natural logarithmic scale) | |
ATR | Alpha/theta ratio: the power ratio of alpha rhythms (8–13 Hz) to theta rhythms (4–8 Hz) | |
Bioimpedance | FFM [kg] | Fat-free mass |
BFM [kg] | Body fat mass | |
%BF [%] | Percent body fat (body fat/whole body mass) | |
PhA_body | Phase angle of the whole body = (reactance of the whole body)/(impedance of the whole body) | |
Imp_arm [Ω] | Impedance averaged over both arms | |
Imp_leg [Ω] | Impedance averaged over both legs | |
Reactance_arm [Ω] | Reactance averaged over both arms | |
Reactance_leg [Ω] | Reactance averaged over both legs | |
PhA_arm | Phase angle of both arms | |
PhA_leg | Phase angle of both legs | |
HRV | HF [msec2] | Spectral power in the high frequency (HF) range of HRV (0.15–0.4 Hz) |
LF [msec2] | Spectral power in the low frequency (LF) range of HRV (0.04–0.15 Hz) | |
%LF | LF power/(LF+HF power) | |
HR [bpm] | Heart rate |
Demographic Variable | Control Group | Breathing Program | Walking Program | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | 28 (31.8%) | 29 (33.0%) | 31 (35.2%) | |
Missing cases | ||||
EEG | 6 (20.7%) | 5 (17.2%) | 3 (9.7%) | 0.486 |
HRV | 16 (61.5%) | 13 (44.8%) | 9 (29.0%) | 0.413 |
Bioimpedance | 8 (27.6%) | 4 (13.8%) | 2 (6.5%) | 0.075 |
SC Type | 0.214 | |||
TE | 18 (64.3%) | 12 (41.4%) | 16 (51.6%) | |
SE | 3 (10.7%) | 5 (17.2%) | 8 (25.8%) | |
SY | 7 (25.0%) | 12 (41.4%) | 7 (22.6%) | |
Sex: Female | 20 (69.0%) | 22 (75.9%) | 28 (90.3%) | 0.118 |
Age [yr] | 74.4 ± 4.9 | 78.5 ± 6.9 | 72.9 ± 6.2 | 0.002 |
Height [cm] | 154.9 ± 6.6 | 153.3 ± 10.2 | 151.9 ± 5.5 | 0.325 |
Weight [kg] | 60.8 ± 8.1 | 58.4 ± 9.7 | 56.5 ± 8.6 | 0.178 |
BMI [kg/m2] | 25.3 ± 3.2 | 23.8 ± 2.9 | 24.4 ± 3.3 | 0.168 |
MMSE | 25.3 ± 3.5 | 23.5 ± 4.0 | 26.3 ± 4.1 | 0.024 |
Smoking: Yes | 1 (3.6%) | 4 (13.8%) | 1 (3.2%) | 0.191 |
Alcohol: Yes | 1 (3.6%) | 3 (10.3%) | 2 (6.5%) | 0.595 |
Religion: Yes | 22 (78.6%) | 15 (51.7%) | 20 (64.5%) | 0.105 |
Marital status: Married | 14 (50.0%) | 4 (13.8%) | 16 (51.6%) | 0.004 |
Education level | 0.005 | |||
None | 3 (10.7%) | 12 (41.4%) | 1 (3.2%) | |
1~3 years | 2 (7.1%) | 3 (10.3%) | 7 (22.6%) | |
4~6 years | 13 (46.4%) | 10 (34.5%) | 10 (32.3%) | |
7~9 years | 3 (10.7%) | 1 (3.4%) | 2 (6.5%) | |
More than 10 years | 7 (25.0%) | 3 (10.3%) | 11 (35.5%) | |
Medical history | ||||
Hypertension | 13 (46.4%) | 17 (58.6%) | 15 (48.4%) | 0.609 |
Diabetes | 5 (17.9%) | 7 (24.1%) | 5 (16.1%) | 0.714 |
Dyslipidemia | 13 (46.4%) | 11 (37.9%) | 8 (25.8%) | 0.253 |
Arthritis | 15 (53.6%) | 17 (58.6%) | 12 (38.7%) | 0.275 |
Cerebrovascular disease | 1 (3.6%) | 2 (6.9%) | 1 (3.2%) | 0.758 |
Depression | 1 (3.6%) | 2 (6.9%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.338 |
Parkinson’s disease | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 1 (3.2%) | 0.395 |
Etc. | 5 (17.9%) | 13 (44.8%) | 8 (25.8%) | 0.071 |
Visits to forest [per month] | 2.9 ± 5.1 | 1.4 ± 5.6 | 1.8 ± 3.7 | 0.491 |
Willing to participate in an FTP | 24 (85.7%) | 27 (93.1%) | 31 (100.0%) | 0.094 |
Daily activity hours [hour/day] | 1.3 ± 1.7 | 0.9 ± 1.0 | 2.1 ± 3.2 | 0.114 |
EEG | Control | Breathing Program | Walking Program | BP–CN | WP–CN | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | ||||||||
MEF [Hz] | 8.47 | −0.45 ** (−0.78, −0.11) | 0.57 | 8.40 | −0.02 (−0.38, 0.34) | 0.02 | 8.40 | −0.40 * (−0.77, −0.03) | 0.40 | 0.43 (−0.11, 0.97) | 0.45 | 0.05 (−0.48, 0.57) | 0.05 |
2.71 | −0.10 (−0.33, 0.13) | 0.18 | 3.00 | −0.17 (−0.42, 0.08) | 0.28 | 2.65 | −0.15 (−0.42, 0.11) | 0.22 | −0.07 (−0.45, 0.31) | 0.11 | −0.06 (−0.42, 0.31) | 0.09 | |
1.86 | −0.10 (−0.37, 0.16) | 0.17 | 2.31 | −0.16 (−0.44, 0.12) | 0.24 | 2.09 | 0.13 (−0.16, 0.42) | 0.17 | −0.06 (−0.49, 0.37) | 0.08 | 0.23 (−0.18, 0.64) | 0.32 | |
ATR | 1.25 | −0.06 (−0.13, 0.02) | 0.33 | 1.18 | 0.00 (−0.08, 0.08) | 0.02 | 1.22 | −0.15 *** (−0.23, −0.07) | 0.68 | 0.06 (−0.06, 0.18) | 0.29 | −0.09 (−0.21, 0.03) | 0.44 |
Bioimpedance | Control | Breathing Program | Walking Program | BP–CN | WP–CN | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | ||||||||
FFM [kg] | 40.70 | 0.72 (−0.30, 1.74) | 0.31 | 37.47 | −0.26 (−1.26, 0.74) | 0.10 | 38.28 | 0.20 (−0.92, 1.31) | 0.07 | −0.98 (−2.52, 0.55) | 0.36 | −0.53 (−2.01, 0.96) | 0.20 |
BFM [kg] | 20.48 | 0.26 (−0.79, 1.30) | 0.11 | 20.21 | 0.62 (−0.43, 1.67) | 0.24 | 18.72 | 0.02 (−1.15, 1.18) | 0.01 | 0.36 (−1.30, 2.02) | 0.12 | −0.24 (−1.88, 1.40) | 0.08 |
%BF [%] | 33.00 | −0.36 (−1.85, 1.13) | 0.11 | 34.48 | 0.75 (−0.76, 2.26) | 0.20 | 32.25 | −0.41 (−2.12, 1.31) | 0.09 | 1.11 (−1.26, 3.47) | 0.26 | −0.04 (−2.39, 2.30) | 0.01 |
PhA_body | 5.38 | 0.29 *** (0.14, 0.44) | 0.85 | 4.91 | 0.48 *** (0.34, 0.63) | 1.30 | 5.42 | 0.20 * (0.03, 0.36) | 0.44 | 0.19 (−0.05, 0.43) | 0.45 | −0.09 (−0.32, 0.13) | 0.24 |
Imp_arm [Ω] | 343.69 | 3.22 (−4.38, 10.82) | 0.18 | 346.11 | 14.25 *** (6.54, 21.96) | 0.74 | 347.20 | −1.19 (−9.63, 7.25) | 0.05 | 11.03 (−1.01, 23.08) | 0.51 | −4.41 (−16.13, 7.32) | 0.21 |
Imp_leg [Ω] | 168.44 | 3.41 (−2.91, 9.74) | 0.24 | 180.63 | −3.86 (−10.13, 2.40) | 0.25 | 168.65 | 8.76 * (1.65, 15.87) | 0.46 | −7.28 (−17.27, 2.71) | 0.41 | 5.35 (−4.37, 15.07) | 0.31 |
Reactance_arm [Ω] | 31.45 | 1.74 * (0.29, 3.19) | 0.52 | 28.07 | 6.32 *** (4.70, 7.95) | 1.55 | 33.92 | −0.56 (−2.18, 1.06) | 0.13 | 4.58 *** (2.14, 7.03) | 1.05 | −2.30 * (−4.57, −0.02) | 0.57 |
Reactance_leg [Ω] | 15.52 | 1.23 * (0.23, 2.23) | 0.53 | 16.24 | −0.37 (−1.39, 0.65) | 0.14 | 14.58 | 2.25 *** (1.12, 3.39) | 0.74 | −1.60 (−3.21, 0.01) | 0.56 | 1.02 (−0.56, 2.60) | 0.37 |
PhA_arm | 5.28 | 0.28 *** (0.14, 0.43) | 0.85 | 4.66 | 0.87 *** (0.70, 1.03) | 2.13 | 5.63 | 0.01 (−0.17, 0.20) | 0.03 | 0.58 *** (0.33, 0.84) | 1.29 | −0.27 * (−0.51, −0.03) | 0.64 |
PhA_leg | 5.35 | 0.29 * (0.06, 0.52) | 0.54 | 5.16 | −0.06 (−0.30, 0.17) | 0.11 | 4.97 | 0.60 *** (0.35, 0.85) | 0.89 | −0.35 (−0.71, 0.02) | 0.54 | 0.31 (−0.04, 0.67) | 0.50 |
HRV | Control | Breathing Program | Walking Program | BP–CN | WP–CN | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | ||||||||
HF [msec2] | 3.88 | −0.13 (−0.69, 0.44) | 0.13 | 4.27 | −0.46 (−0.98, 0.05) | 0.46 | 4.61 | 0.41 (−0.09, 0.92) | 0.35 | −0.34 (−1.22, 0.55) | 0.28 | 0.54 (−0.31, 1.39) | 0.48 |
LF [msec2] | 3.50 | 0.00 (−0.55, 0.56) | 0.00 | 4.03 | −0.16 (−0.68, 0.35) | 0.16 | 3.99 | 0.28 (−0.22, 0.78) | 0.24 | −0.17 (−1.05, 0.72) | 0.14 | 0.27 (−0.56, 1.11) | 0.25 |
%LF | 46.89 | −1.38 (−6.31, 3.55) | 0.16 | 48.25 | 1.48 (−3.19, 6.14) | 0.16 | 46.50 | −1.38 (−5.90, 3.14) | 0.13 | 2.86 (−5.00, 10.71) | 0.26 | 0.00 (−7.40, 7.40) | 0.00 |
TP [msec2] | 5.47 | −0.04 (−0.53, 0.46) | 0.04 | 5.88 | 0.05 (−0.40, 0.50) | 0.06 | 6.14 | 0.17 (−0.27, 0.62) | 0.17 | 0.09 (−0.69, 0.86) | 0.08 | 0.21 (−0.54, 0.96) | 0.21 |
HR [bpm] | 68.93 | 2.87 (−1.58, 7.33) | 0.38 | 67.64 | 5.97 ** (1.82, 10.11) | 0.73 | 64.17 | 3.02 (−1.04, 7.09) | 0.32 | 3.09 (−3.85, 10.04) | 0.32 | 0.15 (−6.61, 6.91) | 0.02 |
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Yi, J.; Ku, B.; Kim, S.G.; Khil, T.; Lim, Y.; Shin, M.; Jeon, S.; Kim, J.; Kang, B.; Shin, J.; et al. Traditional Korean Medicine-Based Forest Therapy Programs Providing Electrophysiological Benefits for Elderly Individuals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224325
Yi J, Ku B, Kim SG, Khil T, Lim Y, Shin M, Jeon S, Kim J, Kang B, Shin J, et al. Traditional Korean Medicine-Based Forest Therapy Programs Providing Electrophysiological Benefits for Elderly Individuals. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(22):4325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224325
Chicago/Turabian StyleYi, Jiyune, Boncho Ku, Seul Gee Kim, Taegyu Khil, Youngsuwn Lim, Minja Shin, Sookja Jeon, Jingun Kim, Byunghoon Kang, Jongyeon Shin, and et al. 2019. "Traditional Korean Medicine-Based Forest Therapy Programs Providing Electrophysiological Benefits for Elderly Individuals" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 22: 4325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224325