Assessing Residential Exposure Risk from Spills of Flowback Water from Marcellus Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Activity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Residential Tap Water Exposure Scenario
- Cw = Chemical concentration in residential drinking water (mg/L)
- Cflowback = Chemical concentration in flowback water (mg/L)
- Vflowback = Volume of flowback water spilled (L)
- Vpond = Volume of drinking water reservoir/holding pond (L)
- Ingestion of contaminated drinking water: This scenario assumes direct ingestion of unfiltered residential drinking water. An average daily water ingestion rate of 2.5 L/day was used in this calculation [49].
- Inhalation of VOCs that may volatilize from the water to the air: This exposure pathway applies to chemicals with a Henry’s Law constant greater than 1 × 10−5 atm⋅m3/mole and a molecular weight less than 200 g/mole, as they are most likely to volatilize from water during use and contaminate the air. Three carcinogens examined in this assessment meet these criteria, benzene, 1,2-dichloroethane, and vinyl chloride, as well as the radionuclides which may volatilize or aerosolize. This scenario assumes a default volatilization rate of 0.0005 × 1000 L/m3 based on an equation defining the relationship between a volatile chemical’s concentration in water and its average volatilized concentration in the air [50]. This includes all household uses of water (showering/bathing, dish washing, cooking, etc.), and assumes an average daily air inhalation rate of 15 m3/day [49].
- Dermal exposure to contaminated water: This pathway examines direct skin contact with contaminated water during showering or bathing. This scenario assumes total skin surface area exposure for 43 min every day based on average values recommended by the Exposure Factors Handbook [49].
2.2. Residential Swimming Exposure Scenario
2.3. Monte Carlo Simulation
2.4. Residential Risk Assessment for Carcinogens
2.5. Residential Toxicity Assessment for Non-Carcinogens
3. Results
3.1. Residential Exposure from Tap-Water
3.2. Residential Exposure from Swimming
3.3. Uncertainty
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variable | Variable Description | Source |
---|---|---|
ABSGI | Fraction absorbed in gastrointestinal tract (dimensionless) | [33] |
AT | Averaging time (70 years) | [55] |
B | Correlation coefficient (dimensionless) | [55] |
BW | Average adult body weight (80 kg) | [55] |
DAD | Dermal absorbed dose (mg/kg⋅day) | [55] |
Cw | Chemical concentration in water (mg/cm3) | Table 2; Equation (1) |
FA | Fraction absorbed water (dimensionless) | [59] |
K | Volatilization rate (0.5 m3/L) | [55] |
KP | Dermal permeability coefficient of compound in water (cm/h) | [49] |
IUR | Inhalation unit risk | Table A3 |
RfCi | Inhalation reference concentration (mg/m3) | Table A3 |
RfDABS | Absorbed reference dose (mg/kg⋅day) | Table A3; Exhibit B2b |
RfDi | Inhalation reference dose (mg/kg⋅day) | Table A3; Exhibit B3 |
RfDO | Oral reference dose (mg/kg⋅day) | Table A3 |
SFABS | Absorbed slope factor (mg/kg⋅day)−1 | Table A3; Exhibit B2b |
SFi | Inhalation slope factor (mg/kg⋅day)−1 | Table A3; Exhibit B3 |
SFimm | Immersion slope factor (mg/kg⋅day)−1 | Table A4 |
SFO | Oral slope factor (mg/kg⋅day)−1 | Table A3 |
Variable | Variable Description | Value | Source |
---|---|---|---|
AT | Averaging time (years) | 70 years | [55] |
BW | Average adult body weight (kg) | 80 kg | [55] |
ED | Exposure duration (years) | 30 years | [59] |
EF | Exposure frequency (days/year) | 350 days/year | [49] |
EV | Event frequency (events/day) | 1 event/day | [49] |
IRw | Daily water ingestion rate (L/day) | 2.5 L/day | [49] |
IRa | Daily air inhalation rate (m3/day) | 15 m3/day | [49] |
SA | Exposed skin surface area (cm2) | 19,652 cm2 (avg. adult skin surface area) | [49] |
t* | Time to reach steady-state (h) | Chemical specific | Exhibit B3 |
tevent | Event duration (h/event) | Typical adult exposure = 0.71 h/day | [49] |
τevent | Lag time per event (h/event) | Chemical specific | Exhibit B3 |
Chemical | SFo (mg/kg-day)−1 | RfDo (mg/kg-day) | ABSGI | IUR (μg/m3) | RfCi (mg/m3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aluminum | - | 1.0 | 1 | - | 5.0 × 10−3 |
Antimony | - | 4.0 × 10−4 | 0.15 | - | - |
Arsenic | 1.5 | 3.0 × 10−4 | 1 | 4.3 × 10−3 | 1.5 × 10−5 |
Barium | - | 2.0 × 10−1 | 0.07 | - | 5.0 × 10−4 |
Benzene | 5.5 × 10−2 | 4.0 × 10−3 | 1 | 7.8 × 10−6 | 3.0 × 10−2 |
Benzo(a)pyrene | 7.3 | - | 1 | 1.10 × 10−3 | - |
Beryllium | - | 2.0 × 10−3 | 0.007 | 2.4 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−5 |
Cadmium | - | 5.0 × 10−4 | 0.05 | 1.8 × 10−3 | 1.0 × 10−5 |
Copper | - | 4.0 × 10−2 | 1 | - | - |
Dibromochloromethane | 8.4 × 10−2 | 2.0 × 10−2 | 1 | - | - |
1,2-Dichloroethane | 9.1 × 10−2 | 6.0 × 10−3 | 1 | - | - |
Heptachlor | 4.5 | 5.0 × 10-4 | 1 | 2.6 × 10−5 | 7.0 × 10−3 |
Heptachlor Epoxide | 9.1 | 1.3 × 10−5 | 1 | 1.3 × 10−3 | - |
Iron | - | 7.0 × 10−1 | 1 | 2.6 × 10−3 | - |
Lead | 8.5 × 10−3 | - | 1 | - | - |
Manganese | - | 2.4 × 10−2 | 1 | 1.2 × 10−5 | - |
Nitrite as N | - | 1.0 × 10−1 | 1 | - | 5.0 × 10−5 |
Pentachlorophenol | 4.0 × 10−1 | 5.0 × 10−3 | 1 | - | - |
Thallium | - | 1.0 × 10−5 | 1 | 5.1 × 10−6 | - |
Vinyl Chloride | 7.2 × 10−1 | 3.0 × 10−3 | 1 | - | - |
Appendix B
Exhibit B1a. Equations for estimating cancer risk and hazard quotient following ingestion of contaminants in residential drinking water [50].
Exhibit B1b. Sample calculation estimating cancer risk and hazard quotient following ingestion of residential drinking water with median concentration of Benzene [50].
Exhibit B2a. Equations for estimating cancer risk and hazard quotient following dermal exposure to contaminants in residential drinking water [55].
Exhibit B2b. Additional equations for estimating cancer risk and hazard quotient following dermal exposure to contaminants in residential drinking water [55].
Exhibit B2c. Sample calculation estimating cancer risk and hazard quotient following dermal exposure to flowback water with median concentration of Benzene (full hand exposure for 3 h) [55].
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Contaminants | Ingestion | Dermal | Inhalation |
---|---|---|---|
Aluminum | Neurobehavioral alterations; skeletal effects (e.g., osteomalacia) | No known dermal health effects | Impaired lung function and fibrosis |
Antimony | Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; stomach cramps | Skin irritation | Irritation to nose, throat, mouth; cough; dizziness |
Arsenic * | Gastrointestinal and reproductive effects; possible liver damage | Dermatitis; hyperpigmentation of skin; potential occupational carcinogen | Respiratory distress in animals |
Barium | Gastroenteritis; muscle spasm; slow pulse | No known dermal health effects | Upper respiratory system effects |
Benzene * | Headache, nausea, staggered gait; anorexia, weakness, exhaustion | Skin irritation; dermatitis | Respiratory system effects; dizziness; headache; associated with leukemia |
Benzo(a)pyrene * | Causes tumors in animals; birth defects | Dermatitis; regressive verrucae (i.e., warts); skin tumors in animals | Causes tumors in animals |
Beryllium | Ulcerative gastrointestinal lesions | Dermatitis; skin granulomas | Nasopharyngitis; shortness of breath; labored breathing; chemical pneumonitis |
Cadmium | Renal tubular damage; increased risk of bone fractures | No known dermal health effects | Decreased lung function; emphysema |
Copper | Nausea; vomiting; diarrhea | Dermatitis | Irritation to eyes, nose, pharynx; nasal septum perforation |
Dibromochloromethane * | Nervous system disorders; liver and kidney disease | Skin irritation; potential occupational carcinogen | Mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract irritation |
1,2-Dichloroethane * | Nervous system disorders; liver and kidney disease | Skin lesions; pulmonary tumors; potential occupational carcinogen | Lung effects |
Heptachlor * | Liver damage; neurological effects; reproductive system dysfunction | Potential occupational carcinogen | Nervous and immune system effects |
Heptachlor Epoxide * | Liver damage; neurological effects; reproductive system dysfunction | Potential occupational carcinogen | Nervous and immune system effects |
Iron | No known ingestion health effects | No known dermal health effects | Benign pneumoconiosis |
Lead * | Malnutrition; constipation, abdominal pain, colic; neurological impairment | No known dermal health effects | Encephalopathy; neurological effects |
Manganese | Adverse neurological effects | No known dermal health effects | Difficulty breathing; neurological disorder |
Nitrite as N | Methemoglobinemia; abdominal cramps; vomiting | No known dermal health effects | No known inhalation effects |
Pentachlorophenol * | Weakness; nausea; vomiting | Dermatitis; skin lesions; liver effects; renal effects | Irritation to eyes, nose, throat; sneezing, cough; difficulty breathing |
Thallium | Vomiting; diarrhea; liver and kidney damage | Alopecia (hair loss) | Nervous system effects; pulmonary edema |
Vinyl chloride * | Gastrointestinal bleeding; enlarged liver | Skin thickening; frostbite; potential occupational carcinogen | Liver cancer |
Monte Carlo Simulation Input Variables | N | Distribution | Median | 95th% |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flowback Water Spill Volume (L) 1 | 194 | Lognormal | 128.00 | 114,900.00 |
Aluminum Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 220 | Lognormal | 0.29 | 2.80 |
Antimony Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 186 | Triangular | 0.05 | 0.09 |
Arsenic Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 219 | Logistic | 0.05 | 0.09 |
Barium Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 220 | Lognormal | 164.00 | 20,009.00 |
Benzene Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 123 | Lognormal | 0.01 | 0.17 |
Benzo(a)pyrene Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 111 | Logistic | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Beryllium Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 216 | Minimum Extreme | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Cadmium Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 218 | Lognormal | 0.01 | 0.06 |
Copper Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 219 | Lognormal | 33,500.00 | 0.45 |
1,2-Dichloroethane Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 143 | Lognormal | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Heptachlor Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 73 | Pareto | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Heptachlor Epoxide Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 73 | Lognormal | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Iron Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 233 | Lognormal | 29.70 | 178.20 |
Lead Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 212 | Lognormal | 0.03 | 0.20 |
Manganese Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 220 | Lognormal | 2.17 | 12.40 |
Nitrite as N Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 91 | Lognormal | 0.11 | 060.81 |
Pentachlorophenol Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 111 | Weibull | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Thallium Concentration (mg/L) 2 | 192 | Weibull | 0.02 | 0.28 |
Radium-226 Concentration (PCi/L) 2 | 34 | Lognormal | 1.30 | 48,190.20 |
Radium-228 Concentration (PCi/L) 2 | 30 | Lognormal | 0.23 | 4470.00 |
Exposure Pathway | Maximum Exposure Duration (ED) | |
---|---|---|
Drinking Water Scenario | Swimming Scenario | |
Total Ingestion Cancer Risk | 120 days | 16.5 years |
Total Dermal Cancer Risk | 68 days | 55 days |
Total Inhalation Cancer Risk | 1.2 years | 2.1 years |
Total Risk (Ingestion + Dermal + Inhalation) | 39 days | 49 days |
Total Radionuclide Cancer Risk | 8 h | 11 days |
Exposure Pathway | Maximum Exposure Duration (ED) | |
---|---|---|
Drinking Water Scenario | Swimming Scenario | |
Ingestion Hazard Quotient | 36 weeks | 56 years |
Dermal Hazard Quotient | 17 years | 12 years |
Inhalation Hazard Quotient | >100 years | >100 years |
Hazard Index (Ingestion + Dermal + Inhalation) | 31 weeks | 9 years |
Input Variables | Spearman’s ρ—Output Variables | |
---|---|---|
Total Cancer Risk | Total Hazard Index | |
Flowback Water Spill Volume (L) 1 | 0.975 ** | 0.915 ** |
Aluminum Concentration (mg/L) | 0.046 | 0.027 |
Antimony Concentration (mg/L) | 0.005 | 0.000 |
Arsenic Concentration (mg/L) | 0.016 | 0.032 |
Barium Concentration (mg/L) | 0.043 | 0.184 ** |
Benzene Concentration (mg/L) | 0.053 * | 0.034 |
Benzo(a)pyrene Concentration (mg/L) | 0.061 * | 0.019 |
Beryllium Concentration (mg/L) | 0.028 | 0.057 * |
Cadmium Concentration (mg/L) | 0.012 | 0.039 |
Copper Concentration (mg/L) | 0.007 | 0.016 |
Dibromochloromethane Concentration (mg/L) | 0.034 | 0.055 * |
1,2-Dichloroethane Concentration (mg/L) | 0.048 | 0.057 * |
Heptachlor Concentration (mg/L) | 0.025 | 0.021 |
Heptachlor Epoxide Concentration (mg/L) | 0.008 | 0.014 |
Iron Concentration (mg/L) | 0.006 | 0.017 |
Lead Concentration (mg/L) | 0.019 | 0.018 |
Manganese Concentration (mg/L) | 0.010 | 0.022 |
Nitrite as N Concentration (mg/L) | 0.013 | 0.022 |
Pentachlorophenol Concentration (mg/L) | 0.032 | 0.030 |
Thallium Concentration (mg/L) | 0.023 | 0.157 ** |
Vinyl chloride Concentration (mg/L) | 0.015 | 0.016 |
Input Variables | Total Radionuclide Cancer Risk | |
Flowback Water Spill Volume (L) 1 | 0.901 ** | |
Radium-226 Concentration (PCi/L) | 0.362 ** | |
Radium-228 Concentration (PCi/L) | 0.142 ** |
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Abualfaraj, N.; Gurian, P.L.; Olson, M.S. Assessing Residential Exposure Risk from Spills of Flowback Water from Marcellus Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Activity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040727
Abualfaraj N, Gurian PL, Olson MS. Assessing Residential Exposure Risk from Spills of Flowback Water from Marcellus Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(4):727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040727
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbualfaraj, Noura, Patrick L. Gurian, and Mira S. Olson. 2018. "Assessing Residential Exposure Risk from Spills of Flowback Water from Marcellus Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Activity" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 4: 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040727
APA StyleAbualfaraj, N., Gurian, P. L., & Olson, M. S. (2018). Assessing Residential Exposure Risk from Spills of Flowback Water from Marcellus Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040727