A Pilot Study of Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Mount Isa, Queensland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
Study Design
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Authors Contributions
Conflicts of interest
References
- National Pollution Inventory; Government of Australia: Canberra, Australia, 2014. Available online: http://www.npi.gov.au/npidata/action/load/emission-by-individual-facility-result/criteria/state/QLD/year/2014/jurisdiction-facility/Q020MIM001 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- National Pollution Inventory; Government of Australia: Canberra, Australia, 2016. Available online: http://www.npi.gov.au/npidata/action/load/emission-by-individual-facility-result/criteria/state/QLD/year/2016/jurisdiction-facility/Q020MIM001 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Xstrata Mount Isa Mines. Sustainability Report. 2010. Available online: https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= &esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjog5aH85TWAhUMTbwKHYHwCDwQFgguMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountisamines.com.au%2Fen%2Fpublications%2FSustainabilityReports%2FMount%2520Isa%2520Mines%2520Sustainability%2520Report.pdf&usg=AFQjCNFIeRhOpjbvPovLKTrq8IAqmexdCQ (accessed on 8 September 2017).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2014–15: Population Estimates by Significant Urban Area, 2005–2015. 2017. Available online: http://stat.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary®ion=35300&dataset =ABS_REGIONAL_LGA&geoconcept=REGION&datasetASGS=ABS_REGIONAL_ASGS&datasetLGA=ABS_REGIONAL_LGA®ionLGA=REGION®ionASGS=REGION (accessed on 8 September 2017).
- Queensland Government. Population Estimates by Indigenous Status. Available online: http://www.qgso.qld.gov.au/ subjects/demography/atsi-people/tables/pop-est-indigenous-status/index.php (accessed on 8 September 2017).
- Social Health Atlases. Available online: http://phidu.torrens.edu.au/social-health-atlases (accessed on 8 September 2017).
- Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Closing the Gap Prime Minister’s Report; 2017. Available online: https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad= rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiYkvySmZXWAhXFUrwKHcloDrMQFggoMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fclosingthegap.pmc.gov.au%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fctg-report-2017.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEBvujonqNw7OZwUnQGY00o2u5jMQ (accessed on 8 September 2017).
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Lead Absorption—Texas. 1973. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/lmrk095.htm (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Baker, E.L.; Hayes, C.G.; Landrian, P.J.; Handke, J.L.; Leger, R.T.; Housworth, W.J.; Harrington, J.M. A nationwide survey of heavy metal absorption in children living near primary copper, lead and zinc smelters. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1977, 106, 261–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Final Report 1986); EPA/600/8-83/028AF (NTIS PB87142386); United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA): Washington, DC, USA, 1986. Available online: http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=32647#Download (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Parry, J. Metal smelting plants poison hundreds of Chinese children. BMJ (Clin. Res. Ed.) 2009, 339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soto-Jiménez, M.; Flegal, A. Childhood lead poisoning from the smelter in Torreón, México. Environ. Res. 2011, 111, 590–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clune, A.L.; Falk, H.; Riederer, A.M. Mapping global environmental lead poisoning in children. J. Health Pollut. 2011, 1, 14–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sullivan, M. Reducing lead in air and preventing childhood exposure near lead smelters: Learning from the US experience. New Solut. 2015, 25, 78–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mackay, A.K.; Taylor, M.P.; Munksgaard, N.C.; Hudson-Edwards, K.A.; Burn-Nunes, L. Identification of environmental lead sources and pathways in a mining and lead smelting town: Mount Isa, Australia. Environ. Pollut. 2013, 180, 304–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- National Health and Medical Research Council. Information Paper: Evidence on the Effects of Lead on Human Health. 2015. Available online: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/eh58_nhmrc_statement_lead_effects_human_health_a.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Response to Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Recommendations in “Low Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call of Primary Prevention”. 2012. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/cdc_response_lead_exposure_recs.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- National Toxicology Program. NTP Monograph on Health Effects of Low-level Lead; US Department of Health and Human Services: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. Available online: https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ohat/lead/final/monographhealtheffectslowlevellead_newissn_508.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Integrated Science Assessment for Lead. 2013. Available online: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/isa/recordisplay.cfm?deid=255721 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- World Health Organization. Lead Poisoning and Health. 2016. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs379/en/ (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Queensland Health. A Report into the Results of a Blood-Lead Screening Program of 1–4 Year Old Children in Mount Isa, Queensland, 2011. Available online: https://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/tphn/lead_report_2010.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Queensland Health. Mount Isa Lead Health Management Committee Report 2013–2015. Available online: http://www.leadalliance.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/MILHMC-Biennial-Report-2013-2016.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Field, D. Mount Isa mine a source of ‘potentially significant’ lead pollution, Glencore-commissioned report finds. ABC News. 8 February 2017. Available online: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-09/mount-isa-mine-source-potentially-significant-lead-pollution/8252836 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- McKenna, D. Danger in the Air for Mining Town’s Children. The Australian. 18 September 2010. Available online: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/investigations/danger-in-the-air-for-mining-towns-children/news-story/fe55e0152abab33d6ebba3812fbdbe40 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Taylor, M.P.; Schniering, C. The public minimization of the risks associated with environmental lead exposure and elevated blood lead levels in children, Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 2010, 65, 45–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Purtill, J. Indigenous health workers say lead education failing mount Isa kids. ABC News. 19 April 2017. Available online: http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/mount-isa-indigenous-health-workers-say-lead-education-failing/8453810 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Sullivan, M.; Green, D. Misled about lead: An assessment of online public health education material from Australia’s lead mining and smelting towns. Environ. Health 2016, 15, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lesjak, M.; Jones, T. Lead Health Report—Children Less than 5 Years Old in Broken Hill. 2016. Available online: http://leadsmart.nsw.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Broken-Hill-Lead-Health-Report-2015-children-aged-0percentE2percent80percent934.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- South Australia Health. Port Pirie Blood Lead Levels: Analysis of Blood Lead Levels for 2016 (1 January–31 December 2016); Government of South Australia: Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2016. Available online: http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/5e48f40040231af7910c9d1b8164fdb6/Port+Pirie+Blood+Lead+Levels+Analysis+for+2016+ percent281+January-31+December+2016 percent29.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID= 5e48f40040231af7910c9d1b8164fdb6 (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Barry, D. Good results in latest Mount Isa lead testing. The North West Star. 11 July 2017. Available online: http://www.northweststar.com.au/story/4784172/good-results-in-latest-mount-isa-lead-testing/ (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Queensland Health. A Report into the Results of a Blood-Lead Screening Program of 1–4 Year Old Children in Mt. Isa, Queensland; Lead Screening Program 2006–7; Environmental Health Services of the Tropical Population Health Network; Northern Area Health Service: Lismore, Australia; Queensland Health: Brisbane, Australia, 2008. Available online: https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0036/428868/mtisa_leadrpt.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Burns, C. Queensland chief health officer Jeanette Young releases 2016 blood lead level data on Mount Isa infants. The North West Star. 16 February 2017. Available online: http://www.northweststar.com.au/story/4473180/new-lead-data-shown/ (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Young, J. New Mount Isa Air Quality Report Reinforces Mitigation Measures in Place. Living with Lead Alliance. 15 February 2017. Available online: http://www.leadalliance.com.au/category/media-releases/ (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- The Living with Lead Alliance. Annual Report 2014–2015. Available online: http://www.leadalliance.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/EYR-2014_15.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Noller, B.; Zheng, J.; Huynh, T.; Ng, J.; Diacomanolis, V.; Taga, R.; Harris, H. Lead Pathways Study—Air Executive Summary; Health Risk Assessment of Contaminants to Mount Isa City; Queensland, Australia, 2017. Available online: http://www.mountisamines.com.au (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Forbes, M.; Taylor, M.P. A review of environmental lead exposure and management in Mount Isa, Queensland. Res. Environ. Health 2015, 30, 183–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Guidelines for Measuring Lead in Blood Using Point of Care Instruments. 2013. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ACCLPP/20131024_POCguidelines_final.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Magellan Industries. LeadCare II Blood Lead Test Kit Package Insert (Rev 02); Magellan Industries: North Billerica, MA, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Hornung, R.W.; Reed, L.D. Estimation of average concentration in the presence of nondetectable values. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 1990, 5, 46–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boreland, F.; Lyle, D.; Brown, A.; Perkins, D. Effectiveness of introducing point of care capillary testing and linking screening with routine appointments for increasing blood lead screening rates of young children: A before-after study. Arch. Public Health 2015, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McGee, T.K. Private responses and individual action: Community responses to chronic environmental lead contamination. Environ. Behav. 1999, 31, 66–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moodie, S.M.; Tsui, E.K.; Silbergeld, E.K. Community and family-level factors influence care-giver choice to screen BLLs of children in a mining community. Environ. Res. 2010, 110, 484–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yeoh, B.; Woolfenden, S.; Lanphear, B.; Ridley, G.F.; Livingstone, N.; Jorgensen, E. Household Interventions for Preventing Domestic Lead Exposure in Children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014. Available online: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006047.pub4/full#pdf-section (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Kordas, K. The “Lead Diet”: Can dietary approaches prevent or treat lead exposure? J. Pediatr. 2017, 185, 224–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomas, S.L.; Boreland, F.; Lyle, D.M. Improving participation by Aboriginal children in blood lead screening services in Broken Hill, NSW. NSW Public Health Bull. 2012, 23, 234–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Health Consultation Blood Lead Results for 2001 Calendar Year Herculaneum Lead Smelter Site; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Washington, DC, USA, 2002. Available online: http://health.mo.gov/living/environment/hazsubstancesites/pdf/Herculaneumbloodfinal.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Queensland Government. Mount Isa Mine—Lead and Air Quality Monitoring. Available online: https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air-programs/mount-isa (accessed on 14 September 2017).
- United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Policy Assessment for the Review of the Lead National Ambient Air Quality Standards; EPA-452/R-14-001; United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA): Washington, DC, USA, 2014. Available online: https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/pb/data/140501_pa_pb_fin.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). National emissions standards for hazardous air pollution for primary lead processing. Fed. Regist. 2011, 76, 70834–70859. [Google Scholar]
- Pacific Environment Limited. Mount Isa Mines Copper Smelter Extension Project Dust Assessment. 2015. Available online: https://www.ehp.qld.gov.au/management/non-mining/documents/581854part5.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Lennett, D.; Qi, W.; Leonelli, S.; Wang, A.; Keane, S.E.; Greer, L. Reducing the Health Risks from Industrial Lead Pollution: Case Study-Based Recommendations. 2011. Available online: http://www.nrdc.cn/phpcms/userfiles/download/201305/21/Reducing percent20the percent20Health percent20Risks percent20from percent20Industrial percent20Lead percent20Pollution.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Idaho Department of Environmental Quality. Basin Property Remediation Program. 2017. Available online: http://www.deq.idaho.gov/regional-offices-issues/coeur-dalene/bunker-hill-superfund-site/basin-property-remediation/ (accessed on 7 September 2017).
- Von Lindern, I.; Spalinger, S.; Petroysan, V.; von Braun, M. Assessing remedial effectiveness through the blood lead: Soil/dust lead relationship at the Bunker Hill Superfund site in the Silver Valley of Idaho. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 303, 139–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheldrake, S.; Stifelman, M. A case study of lead contamination cleanup effectiveness at Bunker Hill. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 303, 105–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Broken Hill Environmental Lead Program. Steering Committee Annual Report 2015–2016. Available online: http://leadsmart.nsw.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/DOC17-125421-02-Attachment-B-Broken-Hill-Environmental-Lead-Program-BHELP-Steering-Committee-Annual-Report-2015-2016.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2017).
Geometric Mean Blood Lead Levels, 95% CI (1–4 Year Olds); Children and Family Centre Testing (This Study) Includes 1–6 Year Olds | Percent 5.0 µg/dL or Greater | Percent 10.0 µg/dL or Greater | Minimum Maximum Blood Lead Level Values | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Children | Non-Indigenous | Indigenous | All Children | All Children | All Children | |
Mount Isa Mines 1992–1994 | 10.9 (unspecified if geometric or arithmetic mean) (n = 101) | NA | NA | NA | 36.7% | 2–29 |
Queensland Health 2006/2007 | 5.0 (4.7, 5.2) (n = 400) | 4.5 (4.3–4.8) (n = 315) | 7.0 (6.2, 8.0) (n = 83) | NA | 11.3% | 1.3–31.5 |
Queensland Health 2010 | 4.27 (3.96, 4.61) (n = 167) | 3.98 (3.68, 4.32) (n = 130) | 5.44 (4.53, 6.53) (n = 37) | NA | 4.8% | 1.9–22.4 |
Queensland Medical Laboratory 2012 | 3.2 (n = 43) | NA | NA | 21% | NA | NA |
Queensland Medical Laboratory 2013 | 3.2 (n = 83) | NA | NA | 23% | 2.4% | NA |
Queensland Medical Laboratory 2014 | 2.6 (n = 98) | NA | 3.0 | 11% | 0% | NA |
Mount Isa Hospital 2014 (Aug.–Dec.) | 3.2 (n = 57) | NA | 3.5 | 16% | 2% | NA |
Queensland Medical Laboratory and other private labs 2015 | 3.0 (n = 49) | NA | 3.9 | 14% | 6% | NA |
Mount Isa Hospital 2015 | 3.2 (n = 101) | NA | 3.7 | 16% | 2% | NA |
Testing at Children and Family Centre March & May 2017 | 3.8 (2.9; 5.0) (n = 30) | 2.4 (1.8, 3.1) (n = 16) | 6.5 (4.7, 9.2) (n = 14) | 40% | 10% | 1.6–17.3 |
Age Distribution | Percent | n |
---|---|---|
1–2 | 20 | 6 |
2–3 | 30 | 9 |
3–4 | 26.7 | 8 |
4–5 | 16.7 | 5 |
5–6 | 3.3 | 1 |
6–7 | 3.3 | 1 |
Gender | ||
Male | 40 | 12 |
Female | 60 | 18 |
Indigenous Status | ||
Indigenous | 46.7 | 14 |
Non-Indigenous | 53.5 | 16 |
Type of Housing | ||
House | 90 | 27 |
Apartment | 10 | 3 |
Other | 0 | 0 |
Child Previously Tested for Lead? | ||
Yes | 6.7 | 2 |
No | 93.3 | 28 |
Length of Time in Mount Isa (Months) | ||
Mean | 33.1 | 30 |
Min–Max | 10–53 | 30 |
Regular Play Outdoors | ||
Yes | 90 | 27 |
No | 10 | 3 |
Blood Lead Level Distribution | Percent | n |
---|---|---|
<3.3 µg/dL | 36.7 | 11 |
3.3–4.9 | 23.3 | 7 |
5.0–9.9 µg/dL | 30.0 | 9 |
10.0–14.9 µg/dL | 6.7 | 2 |
15.0–19.9 µg/dL | 3.3 | 1 |
Blood Lead Level by Indigenous Status | Geometric Mean (µg/dL) | |
Overall sample | 3.8 (2.9, 5.0) | 30 |
Indigenous | 6.5 (4.7, 9.2) | 14 |
Non-Indigenous | 2.4 (1.8, 3.1) | 16 |
Blood Lead Level by Gender | Geometric Mean (µg/dL) | |
Male | 3.8 | 12 |
Female | 3.8 | 18 |
Children with Blood Lead Levels ≥5 µg/dL | Percent | |
Overall | 40 | 12 |
Non-Indigenous | 18.8 | 3 |
Indigenous | 64.2 | 9 |
Male | 41.6 | 5 |
Female | 38.8 | 7 |
Ages 1–2 | 66.6 | 4 |
Ages 2–3 | 33.3 | 3 |
Ages 3–4 | 12.5 | 1 |
Ages 4–5 | 80 | 4 |
Ages 5–6 | 0 | 0 |
Ages 6–7 | 0 | 0 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Green, D.; Sullivan, M.; Cooper, N.; Dean, A.; Marquez, C. A Pilot Study of Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Mount Isa, Queensland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121567
Green D, Sullivan M, Cooper N, Dean A, Marquez C. A Pilot Study of Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Mount Isa, Queensland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(12):1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121567
Chicago/Turabian StyleGreen, Donna, Marianne Sullivan, Nathan Cooper, Annika Dean, and Cielo Marquez. 2017. "A Pilot Study of Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Mount Isa, Queensland" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 12: 1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121567