Exposure to Flood Hazards in Miami and Houston: Are Hispanic Immigrants at Greater Risk than Other Social Groups?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Race, Ethnicity, SES and Environmental Injustice in Flood Hazard Exposure
1.2. Water-Based Amenities and Flood Hazards
1.3. Self-Protection from Flood Hazards
1.4. Risk Perceptions and Flood Hazards
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Independent Variables
2.3.1. Race/Ethnicity/Nativity
2.3.2. Socioeconomic Status (SES)
2.3.3. Water-Based Amenities
2.3.4. Self-Protection
Structural: Flood Mitigation
Non-Structural: Flood Insurance
2.3.5. Flood Risk Perceptions
2.4. Dependent Variable: Residential Exposure to 100-Year Flood Risk
2.5. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Bivariate Group Comparisons
3.2. Generalized Estimating Equations
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Survey Questions | Coding Used in Analysis |
---|---|---|
Hispanic Immigrant | (1) Were you born outside the US? (2) Are you of Hispanics, Latino, or Spanish origin? | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
US-born Hispanic | (1) Were you born outside the US? (2) Are you of Hispanics, Latino, or Spanish origin? | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
Non-Hispanic Black | (2) Are you of Hispanics, Latino, or Spanish origin? (3) Which of the following best describes your race? Black of African-American | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
Non-Hispanic Other | (2) Are you of Hispanics, Latino, or Spanish origin? (3) Which of the following best describes your race? American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian, Pacific Islander, or Some other race | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
Non-Hispanic White | (2) Are you of Hispanics, Latino, or Spanish origin? (3) Which of the following best describes your race? White | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
SES Factor | Continuous | |
Education | Thinking about the person in your household who is 18 years of age or older with the highest educational degree received or level of school completed—what is the highest grade or level of school that this person has completed? 0 = No formal education 21 = Ph.D. degree | |
Median Household Income (2011 $US) | What was your total HOUSEHOLD income for the year 2011 before taxes? 1 ≤ $10,000 2 = $10,000–19,999 3 = $20,000–29,999 4 = $30,000–39,999 5 = $40,000–49,999 6 = $50,000–74,999 7 = $75,000–99,999 8 = $100,000–149,999 9 = $150,000–249,999 10 ≥ $249,999 | |
Housing Tenure | Is this home…? (1) …owned by you or someone in this household with a mortgage or loan—including home equity loans? (2) …owned by you or someone in this household free and clear—without a mortgage or loan? (3) …rented? (4) …occupied without payment of rent, but not owned? | 0 = Owner (options 1, 2, 4) 1 = Renter (option 3) |
Proximity to Coast or Beach | What level of consideration was given to “Proximity to Coast or Beach” when you constructed, purchased or rented your current home? | 1 = Not a consideration at all 5 = A very important consideration |
Proximity to River or Lake | What level of consideration was given to “Proximity to River or Lake” when you constructed, purchased or rented your current home? | 1 = Not a consideration at all 5 = A very important consideration |
Flood Mitigation Composite | 0 = no mitigation actions taken 7 = all 7 mitigation actions taken | |
Which of the following flood protection methods have been used to protect the home site you occupy from flooding? (1) Home structure elevated to protect against flooding (2) Electric components of the home were elevated (3) Indoor heating, ventilation and air conditioning system components were elevated (4) Outdoor service equipment were elevated (5) Floodwalls, berms or levees were built on site (6) Back flow valves or check valves were installed (7) Interior drainage system was installed | ||
Flood Insurance (Contents) | Are the contents of the home currently covered by the NFIP? | 0 = not covered by NFIP 1 = covered by NFIP |
Risk Perception Factor | Continuous | |
Risk Perception (General) | How much of a problem do you think flooding is in the Metro Area? 1 = “not a problem at all” 5 = “a very serious problem” | |
Risk Perception (Property) | How concerned are you about the possibility of a flood causing damage to your home or property? 1 = “not concerned at all” 5 = “extremely concerned” | |
Risk Perception (Health) | How concerned are you about the possibility of a flood causing injuries or health problems to you or to members of the household? 1 = “not concerned at all” 5 = “extremely concerned” | |
Risk Perception (Livelihood) | How concerned are you about the possibility of a flood preventing your or members of your household from being able to work or causing disruption to daily activities? 1 = “not concerned at all” 5 = “extremely concerned” | |
100-Year Flood Risk | 0 = outside of a 100-year flood zone 1 = within a 100 year-flood zone |
Variable | MSA | N | Min | Max | Mean | SD | % Missing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hispanic Immigrant | Houston | 69 (1) 459 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.131 | N/A | 3.297 |
Miami | 144 (1) 403 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.263 | N/A | 2.321 | |
US-Born Hispanic | Houston | 45 (1) 483 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.085 | N/A | 3.297 |
Miami | 31 (1) 516 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.057 | N/A | 2.321 | |
Non-Hispanic Black | Houston | 101 (1) 423 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.193 | N/A | 3.846 |
Miami | 75 (1) 470 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.138 | N/A | 2.679 | |
Non-Hispanic Other | Houston | 18 (1) 500 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.035 | N/A | 5.128 |
Miami | 10 (1) 524 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.019 | N/A | 4.643 | |
Non-Hispanic White | Houston | 298 (1) 227 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.568 | N/A | 3.846 |
Miami | 289 (1) 257 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.529 | N/A | 2.500 | |
SES Factor | Houston 1 | N/A | −3.1 | 2.3 | 0.000 | 1.000 | N/A |
Miami 2 | N/A | −2.4 | 2.1 | 0.000 | 1.000 | N/A | |
Education Level | Houston | N/A | 1 | 21 | 14.831 | 3.150 | 1.099 |
Miami | N/A | 0 | 21 | 15.029 | 3.253 | 1.071 | |
Household Income | Houston | N/A | 1 | 10 | 4.766 | 2.602 | 23.443 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 10 | 4.376 | 2.549 | 25.536 | |
Housing Tenure | Houston | 100 (1) 432 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.188 | N/A | 2.564 |
Miami | 115 (1) 424 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.213 | N/A | 3.750 | |
Proximity to Coast or Beach | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.449 | 1.533 | 9.890 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.340 | 1.481 | 8.036 | |
Proximity to River or Lake | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.072 | 1.473 | 10.440 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.183 | 1.483 | 8.036 | |
Flood Mitigation Composite | Houston | N/A | 0 | 7 | 3.610 | 1.585 | 43.407 |
Miami | N/A | 0 | 7 | 3.974 | 1.604 | 45.000 | |
Home Elevated | Houston | 227 (1) 211 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.518 | N/A | 19.780 |
Miami | 219 (1) 240 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.477 | N/A | 18.036 | |
Home Electric Components Elevated | Houston | 339 (1) 114 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.748 | N/A | 17.033 |
Miami | 361 (1) 115 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.758 | N/A | 15.000 | |
Home Ventilation System Elevated | Houston | 448 (1) 83 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.844 | N/A | 2.747 |
Miami | 474 (1) 70 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.871 | N/A | 2.857 | |
Outdoor Service Equipment Elevated | Houston | 322 (1) 204 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.612 | N/A | 3.663 |
Miami | 408 (1) 121 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.771 | N/A | 5.536 | |
Floodwalls, Berms, or Levees Installed | Houston | 162 (1) 349 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.317 | N/A | 6.410 |
Miami | 251 (1) 258 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.493 | N/A | 9.107 | |
Backflow Valves Or Check Vales Installed | Houston | 185 (1) 200 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.481 | N/A | 29.487 |
Miami | 183 (1) 216 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.459 | N/A | 28.750 | |
Interior Drainage System Installed | Houston | 72 (1) 364 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.165 | N/A | 20.147 |
Miami | 73 (1) 372 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.164 | N/A | 20.536 | |
NFIP Contents Insurance | Houston | 243 (1) 273 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.470 | N/A | 5.495 |
Miami | 257 (1) 253 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.504 | N/A | 8.929 | |
Risk Perception Factor | Houston 3 | N/A | −1.8 | 1.7 | 0.000 | 1.000 | N/A |
Miami 4 | N/A | −1.8 | 1.6 | 0.000 | 1.000 | N/A | |
How Much of a Problem is Flooding | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 3.660 | 1.239 | 2.015 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 3.766 | 1.136 | 0.893 | |
Property Damage | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.782 | 1.393 | 0.000 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.791 | 1.433 | 0.179 | |
Health Problems | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.730 | 1.392 | 0.183 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.810 | 1.418 | 0.536 | |
Disruption to Daily Activities | Houston | N/A | 1 | 5 | 2.954 | 1.426 | 0.549 |
Miami | N/A | 1 | 5 | 3.018 | 1.408 | 0.357 | |
100-Year Flood Risk | Houston | 74 (1) 472 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.136 | N/A | 0.000 |
Miami | 293 (1) 267 (0) | 0 | 1 | 0.523 | N/A | 0.000 |
Variable | Houston | Miami | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Outside Flood Zone | Inside Flood Zone | p-Value | Outside Flood Zone | Inside Flood Zone | p-Value | |
Hispanic Immigrant 1 | 71.0 | 29.0 | 0.000 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 0.522 |
US-Born Hispanic 1 | 91.1 | 8.9 | 0.330 | 58.1 | 41.9 | 0.235 |
Non-Hispanic Black 1 | 87.1 | 12.9 | 0.818 | 49.3 | 50.7 | 0.761 |
Non-Hispanic Other Minority 1 | 61.1 | 38.9 | 0.002 | 70.0 | 30.0 | 0.138 |
Non-Hispanic White 1 | 90.2 | 9.8 | 0.002 | 44.3 | 55.7 | 0.099 |
SES 2 | −0.0 | 0.0 | 0.776 | −0.1 | 0.1 | 0.059 |
Renter 1 | 83.0 | 17.0 | 0.326 | 50.4 | 49.6 | 0.505 |
Proximity to Coast/Beach 2 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 0.081 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 0.114 |
Proximity to River/Lake 2 | 2.1 | 1.9 | 0.427 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 0.623 |
Flood Mitigation Composite 2 | 3.8 | 3.1 | 0.022 | 4.0 | 3.1 | 0.714 |
NFIP Contents Insurance 1 | 84.3 | 15.7 | 0.148 | 37.4 | 62.2 | 0.000 |
Risk Perception Factor 2 | 0.0 | −0.2 | 0.099 | -0.0 | 0.0 | 0.668 |
Variable | Houston | Miami | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exp(B) | SE | 95% CI 1 | Exp(B) | SE | 95% CI 1 | |
US-Born Hispanic | 0.326 | 0.457 | −1.443–0.460 ** | 0.783 | 0.521 | −1.268–0.778 |
Non-Hispanic Black | 0.472 | 0.327 | −1.395–0.107 ** | 0.940 | 0.318 | −0.686–0.562 |
Non-Hispanic Other Minority | 1.365 | 0.319 | −0.323–0.945 | 0.466 | 0.583 | −1.921–0.395 |
Non-Hispanic White | 0.248 | 0.343 | −2.069–0.719 *** | 1.725 | 0.164 | 0.223–0.867 *** |
SES Factor | 1.169 | 0.146 | −0.131–0.442 | 1.235 | 0.021 | 0.169–0.253 *** |
Renter | 0.793 | 0.182 | −0.192–0.522 | 1.234 | 0.184 | −0.183–0.540 |
Proximity to Coast/Beach | 0.874 | 0.116 | −0.364–0.095 | 1.089 | 0.057 | −0.027–0.198 |
Proximity to River/Lake | 1.039 | 0.125 | −0.207–0.285 | 1.044 | 0.126 | −0.203–0.289 |
Flood Mitigation Composite | 0.678 | 0.094 | −0.573–0.205 *** | 0.983 | 0.098 | −0.208–0.175 |
NFIP Contents Insurance | 1.527 | 0.222 | −0.013–0.859 | 1.984 | 0.074 | 0.538–0.832 *** |
Risk Perception Factor | 0.809 | 0.086 | −0.380–0.044 ** | 0.956 | 0.100 | −0.242–0.151 |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Maldonado, A.; Collins, T.W.; Grineski, S.E.; Chakraborty, J. Exposure to Flood Hazards in Miami and Houston: Are Hispanic Immigrants at Greater Risk than Other Social Groups? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080775
Maldonado A, Collins TW, Grineski SE, Chakraborty J. Exposure to Flood Hazards in Miami and Houston: Are Hispanic Immigrants at Greater Risk than Other Social Groups? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016; 13(8):775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080775
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaldonado, Alejandra, Timothy W. Collins, Sara E. Grineski, and Jayajit Chakraborty. 2016. "Exposure to Flood Hazards in Miami and Houston: Are Hispanic Immigrants at Greater Risk than Other Social Groups?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 8: 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080775
APA StyleMaldonado, A., Collins, T. W., Grineski, S. E., & Chakraborty, J. (2016). Exposure to Flood Hazards in Miami and Houston: Are Hispanic Immigrants at Greater Risk than Other Social Groups? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(8), 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080775