Modeling the Effects of Indoor Passive Smoking at Home, Work, or Other Households on Adult Cardiovascular and Mental Health: The Scottish Health Survey, 2008–2011
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Study Sample and Variables
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Main Results
(N = 36,922) | N (%) or Mean (SD) |
---|---|
Age (range: 0–103) | 41.1 (24.3%) |
0–29 | 12,447 (33.7%) |
30–59 | 14,430 (39.1%) |
60–79 | 8,410 (22.8%) |
80–99 | 1,632 (4.4%) |
100–103 | 3 (0.01%) |
Sex | |
Male | 16,693 (45.2%) |
Female | 20,229 (54.8%) |
Adult Cohort (aged 18–103; n = 27,998) | |
Sex | |
Male | 12,170 (43.5%) |
Female | 15,828 (56.5%) |
Education | |
<high school | 9,087 (32.5%) |
≥high school | 18,848 (67.5%) |
Body mass index | |
<18.5 | 283 (1.0%) |
18.5–25 | 6,997 (25.0%) |
25–30 | 8,930 (31.9%) |
30–40 | 6,392 (22.8%) |
40 and over | 648 (2.3%) |
Missing | 4,748 (17.0%) |
Smoking nowadays | |
Current | 6,837 (24.2%) |
Past | 10,252 (36.6%) |
Never | 10,912 (39.0%) |
Secondhand smoking | |
Exposed to 0 place | 21,268 (76.0%) |
Exposed to 1 place | 5,388 (19.2%) |
Exposed to ≥2 places | 1,342 (4.8%) |
Yes n (%) | No n (%) | Being Exposed in 1 Place | Being exposed in ≥2 Places | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95%CI) | p value | OR (95%CI) | p value | ||||
Total CVD | 10,456 (37.4%) | 17,501 (62.6%) | 1.25 (1.13–1.37) | <0.001 | 1.35 (1.11–1.65) | 0.003 | |
Stroke | 943 (3.4%) | 27,041 (96.6%) | 1.53 (1.27–1.86) | <0.001 | 1.88 (1.28–2.76) | 0.001 | |
Angina | 1,698 (6.1%) | 26,272 (93.7%) | 1.42 (1.22–1.65) | <0.001 | 1.50 (1.06–2.11) | 0.022 | |
Heart attack | 1,177 (4.2%) | 26,807 (95.8%) | 1.36 (1.14–1.61) | 0.001 | 1.87 (1.29–2.71) | 0.001 | |
Heart murmur | 1,161 (4.2%) | 26,822 (95.8%) | 1.19 (1.00–1.42) | 0.051 | 1.17 (0.84–1.64) | 0.360 | |
Abnormal heart rhythms | 2,140 (7.7%) | 25,835 (92.3%) | 1.11 (0.97–1.26) | 0.130 | 1.36 (1.07–1.74) | 0.013 | |
Other heart problems | 833 (3.0%) | 27,159 (97.0%) | 1.23 (1.00–1.51) | 0.051 | 0.88 (0.55–1.39) | 0.581 | |
Diabetes | 1,809 (6.5%) | 26,181 (93.5%) | 1.11 (0.96–1.28) | 0.145 | 1.16 (0.85–1.58) | 0.354 | |
GHQ-12 scores ≥ 12 | 9,009 (35.2%) | 16,553 (64.8%) | 1.28 (1.18–1.38) | <0.001 | 1.45 (1.26–1.67) | <0.001 |
GHQ-12 Items | Yes n (%) | Being Exposed in 1 Place | Being Exposed ≥2 Places | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR (95%CI) | p value | RRR (95%CI) | p value | ||
Able to concentrate | |||||
better than usual | 779 (2.8%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,033 (86.1%) | 1.13 (0.89–1.43) | 0.319 | 0.97 (0.62–1.54) | 0.991 |
less than usual | 2,658 (9.5%) | 1.43 (1.11–1.85) | 0.006 | 1.59 (0.97–2.61) | 0.068 |
much less than usual | 450 (1.6%) | 1.94 (1.38–2.72) | <0.001 | 1.50 (0.81–2.76) | 0.197 |
Lost sleep over worry | |||||
not at all | 10,249 (36.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 13,310 (47.6%) | 1.15 (1.06–1.25) | 0.001 | 0.93 (0.80–1.08) | 0.341 |
rather more than usual | 3,452 (12.4%) | 1.32 (1.17–1.48) | <0.001 | 1.10 (0.87–1.38) | 0.418 |
much more than usual | 927 (3.3%) | 1.85 (1.53–2.23) | <0.001 | 2.25 (1.63–3.11) | <0.001 |
Felt playing useful part in things | |||||
more than usual | 2,098 (7.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,872 (82.1%) | 1.05 (0.92–1.21) | 0.456 | 1.22 (0.93–1.59) | 0.148 |
less than usual | 2,255 (8.1%) | 1.40 (1.17–1.67) | <0.001 | 2.27 (1.63–3.17) | <0.001 |
much less than usual | 645 (2.3%) | 1.65 (1.27–2.14) | <0.001 | 1.83 (1.18–2.85) | 0.007 |
Felt capable of making decisions | |||||
more than usual | 1,722 (6.2%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,202 (86.6%) | 0.95 (0.81–1.10) | 0.471 | 1.04 (0.79–1.36) | 0.806 |
less than usual | 1,684 (6.0%) | 1.21 (0.98–1.48) | 0.073 | 1.61 (1.11–2.33) | 0.012 |
much less than usual | 328 (1.2%) | 1.79 (1.30–2.45) | <0.001 | 2.09 (1.12–3.90) | 0.020 |
Felt constantly under strain | |||||
not at all | 7,544 (27.0%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 15,244 (54.6%) | 1.05 (0.96–1.15) | 0.293 | 0.93 (0.78–1.12) | 0.449 |
rather more than usual | 4,182 (15.0%) | 1.21 (1.07–1.36) | 0.002 | 1.07 (0.86–1.35) | 0.544 |
much more than usual | 958 (3.4%) | 1.50 (1.24–1.82) | <0.001 | 1.70 (1.22–2.37) | 0.002 |
Felt couldn’t overcome difficulties | |||||
not at all | 10,817 (38.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 14,235 (51.0%) | 1.20 (1.11–1.31) | <0.001 | 1.00 (0.87–1.15) | 0.966 |
rather more than usual | 2,257 (8.1%) | 1.42 (1.24–1.63) | <0.001 | 1.48 (1.16–1.90) | 0.002 |
much more than usual | 611 (2.2%) | 1.98 (1.59–2.49) | <0.001 | 1.41 (0.96–2.07) | 0.080 |
Able to enjoy day–to–day activities | |||||
more than usual | 1,403 (5.0%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,192 (79.4%) | 1.03 (0.85–1.24) | 0.769 | 1.15 (0.84–1.58) | 0.384 |
less than usual | 3,478 (12.5%) | 1.32 (1.07–1.62) | 0.010 | 1.68 (1.216–2.41) | 0.005 |
much less than usual | 863 (3.1%) | 1.55 (1.19–2.02) | 0.001 | 1.59 (1.00–2.53) | 0.051 |
Been able to face problems | |||||
more than usual | 1,212 (4.3%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,314 (87.1%) | 0.96 (0.79–1.17) | 0.683 | 0.71 (0.52–0.98) | 0.037 |
less than usual | 1,975 (7.1%) | 1.36 (1.09–1.70) | 0.007 | 1.17 (0.80–1.72) | 0.414 |
much less than usual | 420 (1.5%) | 1.44 (1.03–2.01) | 0.033 | 1.05 (0.58–1.88) | 0.880 |
Been feeling unhappy and depressed | |||||
not at all | 11,937 (42.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 11,596 (41.5%) | 1.19 (1.10–1.30) | <0.001 | 1.20 (1.03–1.41) | 0.023 |
rather more than usual | 3,492 (12.5%) | 1.43 (1.27–1.60) | <0.001 | 1.80 (1.46–2.22) | <0.001 |
much more than usual | 904 (3.2%) | 1.96 (1.62–2.36) | <0.001 | 2.44 (1.76–3.39) | <0.001 |
Been losing confidence in self | |||||
not at all | 13,269 (47.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 10,908 (39.1%) | 1.12 (1.04–1.22) | 0.003 | 1.09 (0.94–1.26) | 0.272 |
rather more than usual | 2,986 (10.7%) | 1.39 (1.23–1.56) | <0.001 | 1.79 (1.45–2.20) | <0.001 |
much more than usual | 765 (2.7%) | 1.89 (1.55–2.32) | <0.001 | 2.27 (1.64–3.12) | <0.001 |
Been thinking of self as worthless | |||||
not at all | 19,055 (68.3%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 6,793 (24.3%) | 1.17 (1.08–1.28) | <0.001 | 1.37 (1.17–1.60) | <0.001 |
rather more than usual | 1,494 (5.4%) | 1.44 (1.24–1.66) | <0.001 | 1.94 (1.50–2.52) | <0.001 |
much more than usual | 575 (2.1%) | 1.81 (1.42–2.29) | <0.001 | 1.74 (1.18–2.58) | 0.006 |
Been feeling reasonably happy | |||||
more than usual | 2,662 (9.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,439 (80.3%) | 1.10 (0.97–1.26) | 0.141 | 1.13 (0.89–1.45) | 0.311 |
less than usual | 2,283 (8.2%) | 1.42 (1.19–1.68) | <0.001 | 1.70 (1.25–2.29) | 0.001 |
much less than usual | 550 (2.0%) | 1.83 (1.41–2.37) | <0.001 | 2.15 (1.40–3.30) | <0.001 |
Not Exposed | Being Exposed in 1 Place | Being Exposed in 2 Places | Being Exposed in 3 Places | |
---|---|---|---|---|
City (>125,000 people) | 6,594 (72.1%) | 2,029 (22.2%) | 468 (5.1%) | 53 (0.6%) |
Urban (>10,000 people) | 5,930 (74.3%) | 1,643 (20.6%) | 356 (4.5%) | 51 (0.6%) |
Small accessible town | 1,861 (76.5%) | 438 (18.0%) | 120 (4.9%) | 14 (0.6%) |
Small remote town | 1,343 (77.6%) | 310 (17.9%) | 64 (3.7%) | 14 (0.8%) |
Rural | 2,882 (81.7%) | 533 (15.1%) | 104 (3.0%) | 9 (0.3%) |
Remote rural | 2,658 (83.5%) | 435 (13.7%) | 75 (2.4%) | 14 (0.4%) |
3.2. Results on Never Smokers Only
Yes n (%) | No n (%) | Being Exposed in 1 Place | Being Exposed in ≥2 Places | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95%CI) | p value | OR (95%CI) | p value | |||
Total CVD | 1,452 (13.2%) | 9,452 (86.8%) | 1.24 (1.01–1.52) | 0.041 | 1.75 (0.98–3.14) | 0.059 |
Stroke | 258 (2.4%) | 10,650 (97.6%) | 1.38 (0.89–2.16) | 0.151 | 1.53 (0.41–5.66) | 0.523 |
Angina | 442 (4.1%) | 10,460 (95.9%) | 1.21 (0.86–1.71) | 0.270 | 2.43 (1.10–5.37) | 0.028 |
Heart attack | 255 (2.3%) | 10,654 (97.7%) | 1.37 (0.88–2.14) | 0.167 | 2.64 (0.99–7.00) | 0.052 |
Heart murmur | 449 (4.1%) | 10,459 (95.9%) | 1.24 (0.89–1.71) | 0.201 | 1.29 (0.58–2.87) | 0.536 |
Abnormal heart rhythms | 686 (6.3%) | 10,220 (93.7%) | 1.04 (0.80–1.36) | 0.773 | 2.01 (0.97–4.20) | 0.062 |
Other heart problems | 244 (2.2%) | 10,665 (97.8%) | 1.67 (1.14–2.45) | 0.009 | 0.37 (0.05–2.66) | 0.326 |
Diabetes | 579 (5.3%) | 10,330 (94.7%) | 1.12 (0.85–1.48) | 0.422 | 0.93 (0.45–1.91) | 0.838 |
GHQ-12 scores ≥ 12 | 3,244 (32.7%) | 6,670 (67.3%) | 1.12 (0.97–1.29) | 0.110 | 1.63 (1.15–2.30) | 0.005 |
GHQ-12 Items | Yes n (%) | Being Exposed in 1 Place | Being Exposed in ≥2 Places | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR (95%CI) | p value | RRR (95%CI) | p value | ||
Able to concentrate | |||||
better than usual | 779 (2.8%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,033 (86.1%) | 1.13 (0.74–1.72) | 0.575 | 1.84 (0.33–10.24) | 0.489 |
less than usual | 2,658 (9.5%) | 1.21 (0.77–1.89) | 0.419 | 2.72 (0.47–15.63) | 0.261 |
much less than usual | 450 (1.6%) | 2.39 (1.25–4.57) | 0.009 | 7.05 (1.01–49.04) | 0.048 |
Lost sleep over worry | |||||
not at all | 10,249 (36.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 13,310 (47.6%) | 1.09 (0.93–1.27) | 0.283 | 0.96 (0.65–1.41) | 0.825 |
rather more than usual | 3,452 (12.4%) | 1.37 (1.11–1.70) | 0.003 | 1.28 (0.72–2.26) | 0.401 |
much more than usual | 927 (3.3%) | 1.51 (1.04–2.19) | 0.031 | 2.53 (1.11–5.81) | 0.028 |
Felt playing useful part in things | |||||
more than usual | 2,098 (7.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,872 (82.1%) | 1.03 (0.80–1.32) | 0.826 | 1.03 (0.53–2.00) | 0.932 |
less than usual | 2,255 (8.1%) | 1.27 (0.92–1.77) | 0.150 | 1.59 (0.68–3.70) | 0.284 |
much less than usual | 645 (2.3%) | 1.77 (1.06–2.95) | 0.029 | 2.42 (0.68–8.55) | 0.171 |
Felt capable of making decisions | |||||
more than usual | 1,722 (6.2%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,202 (86.6%) | 0.95 (0.73–1.23) | 0.698 | 0.95 (0.47–1.89) | 0.874 |
less than usual | 1,684 (6.0%) | 1.21 (0.84–1.73) | 0.301 | 1.49 (0.61–3.62) | 0.379 |
much less than usual | 328 (1.2%) | 1.35 (0.68–2.68) | 0.395 | 0.62 (0.08–5.04) | 0.655 |
Felt constantly under strain | |||||
not at all | 7,544 (27.0%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 15,244 (54.6%) | 0.99 (0.84–1.18) | 0.943 | 1.10 (0.67–1.80) | 0.705 |
rather more than usual | 4,182 (15.0%) | 1.20 (0.96–1.49) | 0.102 | 1.26 (0.68–2.35) | 0.458 |
much more than usual | 958 (3.4%) | 1.52 (1.05–2.19) | 0.026 | 2.87 (1.38–5.95) | 0.005 |
Felt couldn’t overcome difficulties | |||||
not at all | 10,817 (38.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 14,235 (51.0%) | 1.05 (0.91–1.22) | 0.505 | 0.99 (0.67–1.45) | 0.944 |
rather more than usual | 2,257 (8.1%) | 1.27 (0.98–1.64) | 0.071 | 2.21 (1.22–4.01) | 0.009 |
much more than usual | 611 (2.2%) | 1.78 (1.14–2.78) | 0.011 | 1.46 (0.50–4.32) | 0.484 |
Able to enjoy day-to-day activities | |||||
more than usual | 1,403 (5.0%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,192 (79.4%) | 0.96 (0.71–1.30) | 0.781 | 1.74 (0.66–4.56) | 0.261 |
less than usual | 3,478 (12.5%) | 1.05 (0.74–1.49) | 0.801 | 2.98 (1.07–8.32) | 0.037 |
much less than usual | 863 (3.1%) | 1.21 (0.74–1.97) | 0.441 | 2.98 (0.77–11.46) | 0.112 |
Been able to face problems | |||||
more than usual | 1,212 (4.3%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 24,314 (87.1%) | 1.06 (0.75–1.49) | 0.754 | 1.03 (0.45–2.33) | 0.951 |
less than usual | 1,975 (7.1%) | 1.30 (0.86–1.99) | 0.217 | 1.86 (0.65–5.31) | 0.245 |
much less than usual | 420 (1.5%) | 2.06 (1.10–3.86) | 0.024 | 0.69 (0.08–5.99) | 0.739 |
Been feeling unhappy and depressed | |||||
not at all | 11,937 (42.7%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 11,596 (41.5%) | 1.07 (0.92–1.24) | 0.383 | 1.13 (0.76–1.68) | 0.553 |
rather more than usual | 3,492 (12.5%) | 1.23 (0.99–1.52) | 0.059 | 2.44 (1.53–3.91) | <0.001 |
much more than usual | 904 (3.2%) | 1.72 (1.17–2.53) | 0.006 | 4.05 (1.75–9.37) | 0.001 |
Been losing confidence in self | |||||
not at all | 13,269 (47.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 10,908 (39.1%) | 0.96 (0.83–1.11) | 0.584 | 1.21 (0.82–1.77) | 0.336 |
rather more than usual | 2,986 (10.7%) | 1.09 (0.88–1.36) | 0.416 | 2.32 (1.37–3.94) | 0.002 |
much more than usual | 765 (2.7%) | 1.50 (0.97–2.31) | 0.069 | 2.76 (1.15–6.64) | 0.023 |
Been thinking of self as worthless | |||||
not at all | 19,055 (68.3%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
no more than usual | 6,793 (24.3%) | 1.09 (0.93–1.28) | 0.275 | 1.18 (0.77–1.81) | 0.450 |
rather more than usual | 1,494 (5.4%) | 1.16 (0.87–1.55) | 0.326 | 1.99 (1.01–3.92) | 0.047 |
much more than usual | 575 (2.1%) | 1.50 (0.91–2.46) | 0.113 | 1.52 (0.55–4.20) | 0.421 |
Been feeling reasonably happy | |||||
more than usual | 2,662 (9.5%) | reference | n/a | reference | n/a |
same as usual | 22,439 (80.3%) | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.816 | 1.16 (0.62–2.17) | 0.638 |
less than usual | 2,283 (8.2%) | 1.25 (0.91–1.71) | 0.170 | 2.94 (1.41–6.16) | 0.004 |
much less than usual | 550 (2.0%) | 1.13 (0.65–1.98) | 0.657 | 3.40 (1.15–10.08) | 0.027 |
3.3. Main Findings
3.4. Previous Research
3.5. Strengths and Limitations
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Shiue, I. Modeling the Effects of Indoor Passive Smoking at Home, Work, or Other Households on Adult Cardiovascular and Mental Health: The Scottish Health Survey, 2008–2011. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 3096-3107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110303096
Shiue I. Modeling the Effects of Indoor Passive Smoking at Home, Work, or Other Households on Adult Cardiovascular and Mental Health: The Scottish Health Survey, 2008–2011. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(3):3096-3107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110303096
Chicago/Turabian StyleShiue, Ivy. 2014. "Modeling the Effects of Indoor Passive Smoking at Home, Work, or Other Households on Adult Cardiovascular and Mental Health: The Scottish Health Survey, 2008–2011" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 3: 3096-3107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110303096