The Pyramid of Mineral Waters: A New Paradigm for Hydrogastronomy and the Combination of Food and Water

Abstract

The art of food–drink pairing has always fascinated gourmets and cooking enthusiasts. While wine has long held pride of place on the table, natural mineral water plays a central role in this new concept. Through the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters, we aim to explore the relationships between the structure of water and food, flavors and aromas, revealing a world of previously unexplored nuances and tastes. This new approach is based on the analysis of the fixed residue of water, i.e., the amount of mineral salts dissolved in it. The fixed residue gives the water unique organoleptic characteristics, influencing the perception of flavors and sensations in the mouth. By analyzing the technical data sheet of mineral waters designed by us, it is possible to identify their main characteristics and combine them in a consistent way with various dishes, as proposed in the pyramid scheme. There are many possible combinations between natural mineral waters and foods, depending on numerous factors, including the type of water and the salts dissolved in it, the type of food, the cooking method, and the types of sauces and condiments present in the dish. To guide consumers in this fascinating universe, the figure of the water sommelier, or so-called hydro-sommelier, was born. As expert connoisseurs of natural mineral waters, they are able to recommend the ideal water for every occasion, maximizing the taste characteristics of the food served at the table. This study is completed with the construction of the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters, which relates the composition of water, specifically the salient characteristics related to dissolved minerals, with the respective food combinations recommended by us, in relation to the structure of both water and food.

1. Introduction

Food has always been a source of nourishment for the body, involving the five senses in a harmonious and complex path, thus becoming a tool for intrapersonal, interpersonal, and social relationships [1]. One of the greatest scholars of gastronomy, Brillat-Savarin, from the nineteenth century, defined taste as the means through which pleasure and understanding of the world are accessed. He considered food a form of communication and a tool of cultural expression. Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, a well-known French gastronome and jurist, wrote one of the fundamental texts on gastronomy and the relationship between food and culture. In his book “Physiology of Taste” (Physiologie du goût, 1825), he considers food not only as a physiological necessity, but also as a central element of society, health, and human pleasure [2]. His philosophy emphasized sensory pleasure and the importance of harmony between flavors, which is reflected in the choice of the most suitable wine for a particular dish [3]. The approach of this great author has inspired our research on the perfect harmony between the flavors and elements of a meal. In particular, we will deal with the gastronomic link between food and water [4].

In modern catering, especially that of starred restaurants, food is almost exclusively paired with wine, and often it is the expert sommeliers who recommend the right combination between the dish and the precious product of the alcoholic fermentation of grape must [5].

Guided food–wine pairings [6] have been known for some time, but the possibility of creating pairings between food and natural mineral waters is seldom considered. Today, this possibility is reserved only for particularly renowned restaurants [7].

In this work, we are going to analyze how water can play an important role at the gastronomic level, in such a way as to open the boundaries of gastronomy to hydrogastronomy [8].

To understand the best combination of food and water, it is necessary to know the mineral salts present in the different types of water, specifically the parameter defined as the fixed residue at 180 degrees [9]. The chemical-physical characteristics that represent a specific water are linked to the fact that each water follows a different hydrogeological path, which greatly affects the perception of the palate and, consequently, the gastronomic experience [10].

Pliny, in the first century A.D., wrote: “Tale sunt aquae, qualis terra, per quam fluunt”, meaning that the waters are such as the earth through which they flow [10]. We can speak in modern and specific terms of terroir, even for natural mineral waters, or rather, of deep or underground terroir. This analogy with the wine world underlines how the chemical-sensory characteristics of natural mineral waters derive from the interaction between the geology of the territory of origin, hydrogeology, the time spent in the aquifers, and the natural filtration processes. This underground terroir not only influences the taste and structure of water, but also determines its role in gastronomy and haute cuisine [11].

In this new hydrogastronomic vision, the hydrosommelier plays a fundamental role, as an expert connoisseur of natural mineral waters who provides the best combination of these with food [12]. The hydrosommelier is a recent figure in the gastronomic world, and for this reason, we are going to analyze the role they play in the restaurant sector. To understand how to best enhance the characteristics of a food with a specific water, we have created a sensory evaluation form with experts in the field, such as chefs, sommeliers, hydrosommeliers, students of hotel schools, and students of the Faculty of Gastronomic Sciences of the University of Camerino. In this sheet, we analyze all the organoleptic characteristics of water, and this will facilitate the combination with a certain dish or a certain menu. This approach then allowed us to construct the Natural Mineral Water Pyramid as an agile tool for analyzing and combining natural mineral waters with different foods.

The pyramid represents the tool that relates the fixed residue to the possible combinations that can be made by analogy, in relation to the structure of the dish, just as happens in food–wine pairings [13,14]. It is an agile tool to be used both for educational purposes, but also in a more specific way by chefs and expert sommeliers in the construction of a specific water list for a given menu.

2. Materials and Methods

The aim of this article is to deepen the scientific basis of hydrogastronomy, highlighting the role of water in the sensory experience of food and wine, and proposing an application model for the optimal combination based on chemical-physical, and sensory criteria. The integration of knowledge from different disciplines will further enhance the importance of natural mineral water as an active element in both high-end catering, and everyday catering, contributing to the development of a new culture of hydrogastronomic pairing.

To achieve this, we divide the methodology into four distinct parts, which will allow us to discuss the results in a schematic and clear way. The first part concerns the definition of the concept of hydrogastronomy, followed by the concept of the hydrosommelier. We will then proceed with the sensory analysis of natural mineral waters and conclude by giving considerable emphasis to the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters that we have designed. The Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters schematically expresses the relationship between the content of mineral salts present in the water and the food that best lends itself to this hydrogastronomic combination. The diagram is presented in Figure 1.

2.1. The Concept of Hydrogastronomy

Through a review of the literature on the proposed topic, we have built a solid foundation for our editorial project. A systematic research study conducted using the PRISMA methodology [15] on the ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar databases, enabled us to retrieve the most relevant articles related to the topic addressed. The search was carried out using the Boolean operator “AND” and a set of specific keywords: “food pairing with water”, as shown in Figure 2.

The criteria we used to exclude non-relevant studies were mainly related to the proposed topic. In most cases, when we examine drinks in combination with food, we refer to wine, so these studies have all been eliminated except for a few that enabled us to make a constructive comparison regarding the proposed theme. All articles that examine drinking water but do not specifically address natural mineral water have also been removed. The analyses very often concern aspects related to the composition of drinking water both from a chemical-physical and biological point of view. In this specific case, the study focuses on the role that the chemical composition of natural mineral waters plays in relation to the structure and taste they assume, and on how this water can be combined with food.

2.2. The Role of the Hydrosommelier

In a manner symmetrical to the methodology proposed in the previous paragraph for the concept of hydrogastronomy, we have carried out a bibliographic review on the concept of the hydrosommelier. The systematic research conducted using the PRISMA methodology [15] on the ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar databases made it possible to retrieve the most relevant articles related to the topic addressed. The search was carried out using the Boolean operator “AND” and a set of specific keywords: “hydrosommelier”, as shown in Figure 3.

The criteria that were used to exclude non-relevant studies are mainly related, as in the previous case, to the proposed topic. When we talk about sommeliers, we talk exclusively about wine, so all the material related to this specific topic was eliminated, with the exception of some articles that allowed us to make a constructive comparison regarding the proposed theme.

2.3. Sensory Analysis of Natural Mineral Water

Starting from the bibliographic review studies, from the comparison [16] with the evaluation sheets of wine [17,18], tea [19,20,21], and sake [22,23], and from decades of work carried out in the catering sector, we have developed a form of sensory evaluation of natural mineral water, building a new and proper sensory analysis sheet specific to mineral water, which is easy to use even for non-experts in the sector, such as students of a hotel school or first year students of degree courses in gastronomic sciences.

To design the sensory evaluation sheet, thematic analysis was adopted as the primary methodology [24]. This qualitative approach enabled us to identify and analyze in a systematic and rigorous way the main sensory characteristics of natural mineral waters. The data were collected through numerous sessions with panels of expert tasters: chefs, professional sommeliers of the Italian Sommelier Association (AIS) [25], hydrosommeliers of the Association of Mineral Water Tasters (ADAM) [26], as well as students of various classes (students of the “Einstein–Nebbia” Institute of Higher Education in Loreto [27] and university students of the University of Camerino [28]), where I have been conducting water–food sensory analysis for many years, specifically with third-year students of “Gastronomic Sciences” in the practical activities of the “Laboratory of Gastronomy and Food Production” at the University of Camerino [28] for over five years, with several meetings per year.

The waters were chosen in relation to the fixed residue, in such a way as to understand at the palatal level the substantial differences in structure in relation to the dissolved minerals. Specifically, each tasting involves 10 different mineral waters according to

Table 1. Type and number of mineral waters used for organoleptic analysis per year.

Type of Water	Minimally Mineralized <50 mg/L	Oligo-Mineral >50 mg/L <500 mg/L	Mineral >500 mg/L <1500 mg/L	Rich in Mineral Salts >1500 mg/L
Still water	2	1	1	1
Sparkling waters	1	1	1
Natural effervescent			2

:

In each tasting, different waters within the same group are considered, and two tastings are performed per year,

Table 2. Number of tasters per year.

	I Exercise (November)	II Exercise (January)
Groups
Classes III school	23 students	23 students
Classes IV school	22 students	22 students
Classes V school	20 students	20 students
III-year university	25 students	25 students
Experts	10	10

. So, each group tastes 20 waters in a year. Among the various groups, the same waters are taken into consideration and in the same order for each year. So, after five years, 100 waters were analyzed.

As far as waters rich in mineral salts are concerned, there is a very limited availability in the national territory taken into consideration, Italy. For this reason, waters from other countries of the world have also been included.

The sensory analysis sheet for mineral water developed by us shares some general parameters with the cards used for beverages such as wine, tea, and sake, in particular, with regard to visual examination, purity assessment, and balance consideration. However, it differs significantly in its primary focus on the subtle influence of mineralization and the pursuit of certain aromatic neutrality, in contrast to the complex flavor profiling that characterizes other beverages.

While the literature on sensory analysis and food pairing has largely focused on fermented and infused beverages, recognizing their aromatic and gustatory complexity, our research aims to fill a gap in the application of rigorous methodologies to mineral water. This approach is in line with growing attention, even outside the Italian tradition, towards the role of soft drinks in the gastronomic experience. The proposed “Pyramid of Mineral Waters” offers an innovative framework for understanding how the unique characteristics of mineral water—in particular, its mineralization—can interact with food, opening new frontiers in pairing that go beyond simple hydration and deserve further empirical exploration.

Sensory analysis is a key element in identifying the distinctive properties of different natural mineral waters and in guiding appropriate combinations with specific foods or menus. Thanks to this framework, the reader will be able to refine their ability to discriminate among the many varieties of natural mineral waters available, developing a greater sensitivity towards their chemical-physical peculiarities, and their role within the overall taste experience with food.

2.4. Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters

The methodology that allows us to devise the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters, which was built starting from the previous bibliographic review to which the study of sensory analysis cards was added, can be defined as mixed [29].

The mixed methodology combines qualitative and quantitative data, allowing for a more complete understanding of the object of study. In our case, the quantitative data concern the chemical-physical characteristics of the water—the fixed residue—while the qualitative data concern the sensory perceptions and the most suitable combinations of water with food.

The idea behind the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters is to organize and classify waters according to their fixed residue, highlighting how this parameter influences their organoleptic perception and their combination with food

3. Results

3.1. The Concept of Hydrogastronomy

The concept of hydrogastronomy that we have studied derives from the union of the terms hydrology and gastronomy [30,31].

Hydrology [32,33] is the science that studies water from various aspects, considering it from a dynamic, biological, and chemical point of view within the planet. It encompasses numerous fields of scientific study, such as hydrography, hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry, and hydrobiology. The science pays attention to continental, surface, and groundwater, considering when and how they fall to the earth’s surface as precipitation, until they disperse underground or evaporate into the atmosphere [34,35,36,37,38].

The term gastronomy [39,40] includes not only the ways of handling food, the supply of raw materials, the structure of tableware, but all the historical and cultural, technical and material elements that contribute to the practice of food preparation, its traditions, and innovations [41,42]. The recipes for appetizers, first courses, main courses, side dishes, and desserts of Mediterranean cuisine are expressions of regional products and specialties, making Italian cuisine a treasure chest full of dishes linked to tradition, history, and festivities [43,44].

One of the key aspects of hydrogastronomy is the evaluation of the chemical-physical composition of natural mineral waters, with reference to the fixed residue [45,46], the presence of specific minerals (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonates, sulfates, and chlorides) [47,48,49], the pH, and the level of effervescence [50,51]. These parameters, unique and different among the many natural mineral waters, determine the structure of natural mineral water and, therefore, its combination by analogy with the structure of the chosen food, as is the case for the pairing of wine and food [52,53,54,55,56,57].

From a methodological point of view, hydrogastronomy uses analytical and sensory tools to classify and correlate the different types of natural mineral waters with dishes and wines [58,59,60,61].

3.2. The Role of the Hydrosommelier

In recent years, attention to natural mineral waters has grown significantly in the catering and food and wine sector [62,63,64]. Within this context, a new, highly specialized professional figure has emerged: the hydrosommelier [65,66,67].

The hydrosommelier is a certified expert with an in-depth knowledge of the chemical-physical and organoleptic properties of natural mineral waters [68,69]. Their main role is to analyze, describe, and select the most suitable types of water in relation to the dishes and wines served, ensuring a harmonious and balanced gastronomic experience [26]. Water, in fact, is not a simple accompaniment to food, but an element capable of enhancing or attenuating flavors and aromas, influencing the overall perception of a dish or a wine. If not chosen correctly, water can even alter the organoleptic characteristics of wine and food, compromising the taste and pleasure of the table.

This new professionalism is gaining more recognition within high-level catering, both in Italy and internationally, establishing itself in luxury hotels, starred restaurants, and prestigious culinary institutions [70]. The hydrosommelier not only provides advice on the optimal combinations of water, food, and wine, but also takes charge of the training of the dining room staff, the creation of a water list, and the organization of tastings and educational seminars [71,72].

The sensory analysis of mineral water is a fundamental aspect of the work of the hydrosommelier [73]. Through the tasting and evaluation of different types of water, the professional is able to identify variations in taste, structure, and mineralization, classifying them according to scientifically recognized parameters [74].

The role of the hydrosommelier in the field of gastronomy and sensory analysis is to provide a detailed summary of the characteristics of different natural mineral waters, their optimal serving temperature, and the best food-pairing strategies [75,76,77]. In this way, we intend to enhance the contribution of this professional figure and promote greater awareness of the importance of water as a key element in the food and wine experience [78].

The Five Senses in the Organoleptic Analysis of Natural Mineral Waters

The sensory experience related to food and drink is an extremely complex phenomenon that involves the five senses at the same time: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing [79]. Each of them contributes in a distinct but interconnected way to the overall perception of food and beverages, influencing the quality of the taste experience and the level of consumer satisfaction [80].

In this context, the sensory analysis of mineral water plays a particularly important role in the emerging field of hydrogastronomy, a discipline that explores the interactions between natural mineral water and food. It attributes to water an active role in the construction of the gastronomic experience. Recent studies have shown how the organoleptic characteristics of natural mineral water—including visual properties, such as clarity and effervescence, olfactory aspects related to the presence of volatile compounds, and tactile sensations deriving from structure and temperature—can enrich or, on the contrary, negatively alter the overall perception of food [81,82].

To explore this issue, a summary table has been developed that interprets the role of the five senses in the analysis of mineral waters and food. This tool allows one to describe water and food on a sensory level in a synthetic way by describing the correlation, as in

Table 3. Schematic summary of how the five senses interact with food and water.

Mineral Water	Food
View
The appearance of natural mineral water, such as clarity (transparent or, rarely, with slight reflections, depending on the minerals present), can affect the perception of purity and quality. Sight creates a first impression that influences expectations.	The appearance of the food, including colors and presentation, stimulates the appetite and prepares the brain for tasting by enhancing the dining experience.
Olfaction
The sense of smell contributes significantly to the overall sensory experience. Although mineral water is often odorless, some varieties may have slight odors due to dissolved minerals, such as sulfur, magnesium, or calcium.	Flavorings are crucial in food. The sense of smell is deeply linked to the sensations derived from a dish and can recall memories, emotions, and experiences.
Taste
The different mineral compositions of the water affect its flavor. Waters with high levels of sodium may have a saline taste, while those rich in sulfates and/or magnesium may have bitter notes.	Taste helps us understand the flavor of a food in the perception of sweetness, acidity, bitterness, salinity, and umami. The aftertaste can change the initial perception.
Touch
The tactile sensation of water in the mouth, such as its effervescence or viscosity (slightly perceptible in some mineral-rich waters), can affect the perception of freshness, lightness or body.	Touch improves the perception of firmness, crumbliness, and texture of food through contact with the hands, tongue, and teeth. The texture of food can range from crispy to creamy.
Hearing
The sound of opening a bottle of sparkling water or the gurgling of bubbles can add an element of anticipated pleasure, such as perceived freshness.	The perception of the crunchiness or crumbliness of some foods can enrich the overall sensory experience, especially in relation to texture.

.

Ultimately, it is important to recognize that natural mineral water is not just a simple drink, but an active element of gastronomy. This recognition means raising the level of tasting and promoting a more refined culture that is attentive to the quality of the hydrogastronomic experience. Hydrogastronomy, with its innovative and multidisciplinary approach, represents a constantly evolving sector, capable of transforming the perception of water and giving it a leading role in the art of catering [83].

3.3. Sensory Analysis of Natural Mineral Water

During our research on hydrogastronomy and the organoleptic characteristics of natural mineral waters, the need for a clear and reliable methodological tool for their evaluation emerged. For this reason, we have developed a sensory analysis sheet,

Table 4. Natural mineral water sensor analysis board.

Sensory Analysis of Natural Mineral Waters
Name and surname of the taster				Date
					Notes:
A	Type of water	_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________		A	_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
	Water Name
	Fixed residue
B	Type of water	_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________		B	_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
	Water Name
	Fixed residue
C	Type of water	_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________		C	_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
	Water Name
	Fixed residue
D	Type of water	_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________		D	_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
	Water name
	Fixed residue
E	Type of water	_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________		E	_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
	Water name
	Fixed residue
VISUAL INSPECTION			SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION		1	2	3	4	5
Water temperature. Sensation on the palate (cold-hot). 10–12° flat. 8–10° effervescent.			1→Water is at room temperature; 3→Water has an inadequate temperature; 5→Water is at the correct temperature.		_________________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Clarity- * Brilliance. The water is free of visible impurities and is transparent. In carbonated waters, bubbles reflect light.			1→There are residues in suspension; 3→Water has a strong opacity; 5→Water is free of suspended particles, showing crystalline clarity or brilliance.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
** Characteristics of bubbles in natural carbonated/effervescent waters. Amount of bubbles. Few, moderate, abundant.			1→There are no bubbles; 3→There are a few bubbles; 5→Water is characterized by an abundant amount of bubbles.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
OLFACTORY EXAMINATION			SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION		1	2	3	4	5
Olfactory purity. Absence of unpleasant odors. Unpleasant odors. Presence of unpleasant odors, such as those of chlorine, earth, limestone and sulfur.			1→Water gives off intense and very unpleasant odors; 3→Water gives off delicate and unpleasant odors; 5→Water has no unwanted aromas, making it completely neutral and pleasant to the nose.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
TASTE-OLFACTORY EXAMINATION			SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION		1	2	3	4	5
Carbon dioxide. Vivid and refreshing pungent perception after swallowing.			1→You don’t feel carbon dioxide after ingesting; 3→You feel a slight sensation of carbon dioxide after swallowing; 5→On the palate, there is a strong sensation of carbon dioxide that persists after drinking.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Structure. Description of the richness or absence and variety of mineral components present in water.			1→No mineral components are felt; 3→Water has a light consistency and not very complex; 5→Water has a high abundance of mineral salts that give texture and character.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Lightness. Characteristic of a water that is almost silky on the palate.			1→Rough and unpleasant texture; 3→Water has a hard consistency; 5→Water has an extremely soft and velvety consistency.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Tasty trend. Linked to the presence of chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates. Saline sensation: perception of the salty taste based on the salts present in the water.			1→There is no taste after swallowing; 3→There is a delicate perception of salinity; 5→The water has a slight saline tendency.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Sweet trend. Linked to the presence of calcium.			1→You do not feel any gentle tendency after swallowing; 3→There is a slight perception of a gentle tendency; 5→Water has a slight delicate tendency.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Acidic tendency. Linked to a significant presence of carbon dioxide and a very low pH.			1→You do not feel the sensation of acidity after swallowing; 3→There is a slight perception of acidity; 5→Water has a slight tendency to acidity.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Bitter tendency. Linked to the presence of magnesium and/or manganese.			1→You do not feel the bitter feeling after swallowing; 3→There is a delicate perception of bitterness; 5→Water has a slight bitter taste.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Taste-olfactory persistence. Duration of the taste-olfactory notes of the minerals that remain in the mouth after swallowing.			1→Water does not leave any taste sensation in the mouth; 3→Water has a very short duration of taste notes; 5→Water offers a long duration of taste notes.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Purity of taste. Absence of unpleasant flavors like metallic (iron, manganese) or sulfurous odors.			1→Water has intense and very unpleasant flavors; 3→Water has unpleasant odors; 5→Water has no unwanted taste, making it completely neutral and pleasant in the mouth.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E
Scales. Harmonious coexistence of the various aromas during swallowing.			1→Water does not have a balance between flavors; 3→Water shows a certain lack of cohesion between flavors; 5→Water offers a harmonious pleasantness depending on its type.		_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	_______________	A B C D E

* Refers to the presence of carbon dioxide, the quality of the bubbles, and the degree of brightness. ** Refers to the presence of carbon dioxide added in quantity (carbonated) or free to the source (natural effervescent).

, specially designed to guide the reader in understanding the peculiarities of each type of natural mineral water.

The sensory analysis sheet will be presented here in detail, illustrating the various sections and explaining the methods of application for accurate tasting and classification of mineral waters.

It is important to define the terms used for this type of sensory analysis to better clarify the concepts that will be employed. Below is an in-depth description of the terms:

-

Carbon dioxide. The perception of carbon dioxide provides the pungent feeling (carbon dioxide dissolved in the water is transformed into carbonic acid), so there is a lively and refreshing perception perceived in the mouth, especially after swallowing. This indicates the presence of dissolved gas in the water.

-

Brilliance. This is a characteristic of a natural sparkling or effervescent water in which the bubbles reflect the light, making it visually lively and sparkling.

-

Characteristics of bubbles. Specific aspects of the bubbles present in carbonated or natural effervescent waters, in particular, their quantity (few, moderate, abundant).

-

Balance. Harmonious and balanced coexistence of the various flavors perceived during swallowing. Balanced water does not have predominant flavors that dominate the others.

-

Taste-olfactory examination. The sensory analysis phase in which the sensations perceived through the taste in the mouth and the olfactory perceptions that develop during and after tasting are evaluated.

-

Olfactory examination. Phase of sensory analysis in which the smell of the water is evaluated, looking for both purity and any unpleasant odors.

-

Visual examination. A phase of sensory analysis in which the appearance of the water is evaluated, including the clarity, brilliance, and characteristics of the bubbles (if any).

-

Lightness. Characteristic of a water that feels almost silky, soft, and without roughness on the palate.

-

Clarity. No visible impurities or turbidity in the water. Clear water is transparent.

-

Taste-olfactory persistence. Duration of the taste and olfactory sensations of the minerals that remain in the mouth after swallowing the water. It can be short, medium, or long.

-

Purity of taste. Absence of unpleasant or unwanted flavors in the mouth, such as metallic (iron, manganese) or sulfurous (sulfur).

-

Olfactory purity. Absence of unpleasant or unwanted odors perceived by smell, such as those of chlorine, earth, limestone or sulfur.

-

Fixed residue. Total amount of mineral salts dissolved in one liter of water after evaporation at 180 °C. It is an indicator of the degree of mineralization of the water.

-

Structure. Description of the richness and variety of mineral components present in the water, perceived as a greater or lesser “consistency” in the mouth. Water with high mineralization can be perceived as more “structured”.

-

Water temperature. The temperature at which the water is tasted, expressed in degrees Celsius. Temperature can affect the perception of sensory characteristics. For example, colder water may be perceived as “lighter” and “fresher”.

-

Acidic tendency. Slight sensation of acidity perceived in the mouth, often linked to the presence of carbon dioxide and/or a low pH of the water that makes it slightly acidic.

-

Bitter tendency. Slight bitter sensation perceived in the mouth, sometimes associated with the presence of magnesium and/or manganese.

-

Dolce tendency. Slight sensation of sweetness perceived in the mouth, which may be linked to the presence of calcium.

-

Savory tendency. Slight saline sensation perceived in the mouth, linked to the presence of chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates.

-

Type of water. Category of natural mineral water (e.g., minimally mineralized, low in minerals, medium mineral, rich in mineral salts, natural effervescent, sparkling).

The parameters taken into consideration in the sensory analysis sheet not only allow water to be classified objectively but also represent a fundamental element in understanding its sensory impact and potential in food pairing. The analysis sheet also includes specific descriptors for sight, taste, smell, and tactile perception in the mouth, allowing a complete and structured evaluation that considers the subtle organoleptic nuances of each natural mineral water.

The water–food pairing graph makes it possible to compare the various structures of natural mineral waters with different foods based on the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters. Of course, the selection ought to be guided by personal preferences, with the aim of matching natural mineral water to food in the best possible way.

The combination of natural mineral water and food is a fundamental element of the sensory experience of tasting—an aspect often overlooked but which can significantly influence taste perception and the overall harmony of a meal. Much like wine, natural mineral water possesses unique organoleptic characteristics that interact with the chemical and physical components of food, modulating gustatory intensity, aromatic persistence, and tactile sensations perceived in the mouth.

Waters with low fixed residue, characterized by a light taste and neutral profile, are particularly suited for pairing with delicate dishes and light preparations, such as crudités, fish carpaccio, fresh vegetables, and dishes with minimally invasive seasonings. Thanks to their purity and low mineralization, these waters do not overpower the flavors of food but instead enhance its naturalness and freshness.

Conversely, waters with a medium-high fixed residue and a higher mineral content, such as calcium, magnesium or bicarbonate, offer a fuller structure and a more pronounced taste, making them ideal to accompany rich and flavorful dishes. Meat dishes, aged cheeses, intensely seasoned dishes, and strongly flavored foods pair very well with more structured natural mineral waters. These waters help balance the flavors and “cleanse” the palate between bites, aided by natural and added carbon dioxide, enhancing the perception of aromas and textures.

Another important factor to consider when pairing water with food is serving temperature. Similarly to wine, natural mineral water should be served at the optimal temperature to best express its sensory qualities—recommended at 10–12 °C for still waters and 8–10 °C for carbonated or naturally effervescent waters.

Finally, the presence of carbon dioxide in mineral water plays a key role in its interaction with food. Sparkling or effervescent natural waters, through their acidity and the cleaning power of the bubbles, amplify the perception of intense flavors, giving a pleasant sensation of freshness and lightness to the palate. They are particularly well suited to accompany fatty, fried or otherwise rich foods, as they help counteract heaviness and restore gustatory balance by cleansing the taste buds and palate.

3.4. Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters

In modern versions of the food pyramid, water is placed at the base to highlight its fundamental role in the human diet [84]. Following this logic, the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters has been structured into hierarchical levels based on the fixed residue content, representing different categories of water in relation to their mineral salt content and their sensory and gastronomic implications.

The pyramid is divided into four levels, each corresponding to a category of natural mineral waters, as shown in Figure 4:

• Minimally mineralized waters
• Low-mineral waters
• Mineral waters
• Waters rich in mineral salts

The lower part of the pyramid shows the minimally mineralized waters, characterized by a low content of dissolved salts (<50 mg/L). This characteristic gives them a neutral taste and a lightness that makes them particularly suitable to accompany delicate and unstructured dishes, without interfering with the perception of their main flavors.

Ascending the pyramid, we find oligomineral waters (50–500 mg/L). Their moderate mineral content begins to add a certain structure to the palate while maintaining versatility, allowing pairing with a broad range of gastronomic preparations. Due to their capacity to enhance flavors without overwhelming them, these waters represent a balanced choice for both simple and moderately complex dishes.

The upper band of the pyramid has mineral waters (500–1500 mg/L) which have a more pronounced mineralization and are more structured with a defined taste profile. These waters can interact significantly with dishes, enhancing or balancing flavors depending on the specific mineral composition.

At the top of the pyramid are waters with a fixed residue of more than 1500 mg/L, i.e., highly mineralized or hypermineral waters. These waters, often with strong organoleptic characteristics, are not always suitable for habitual consumption at the table, as their intense mineralization can significantly interfere with the perception of food. Their primary use is generally restricted to therapeutic contexts or particular nutritional requirements.

The model of the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters therefore provides a useful theoretical and applicative basis for chefs, hydrosommeliers, professionals in the food and wine sector, university students of the faculties of gastronomic sciences, food science and human nutrition, chemistry and food engineering, as well as enthusiasts. It encourages greater appreciation of the diversity of natural mineral waters and fosters attention to quality and harmony in food–water pairings during the culinary experience.

The sensory analysis of natural mineral water and its combination with food must take into account an important factor: taste perception is inherently subjective. While the Natural Mineral Water Pyramid model provides a rational and systematic basis for guiding pairing choices, it is critical to recognize that individual flavor sensitivity, gustatory memory, and personal preferences play an essential role in determining the sensory balance between water and food.

As with wine, each mineral water possesses a unique sensory profile deriving from its specific chemical composition. The presence of minerals in different concentrations can impart nuances of flavor that interact with food in different ways. Some waters emphasize the sweetness of a dish, while others amplify its flavor or help cleanse the palate between bites. In this context, the principle of analogy in pairing—matching similar or complementary characteristics—becomes a powerful strategy to enrich the overall gastronomic experience.

Although the classification of the Natural Mineral Water Pyramid, based solely on the fixed residue, offers a clear and easily applicable framework for the combination of water and food, it does not consider other fundamental aspects of natural mineral waters. Parameters such as pH, the specific concentration of individual minerals (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.), the type of effervescence (natural effervescent or with added carbon dioxide), and its serving temperature can significantly influence the sensory experience and the way in which water interacts with different gastronomic preparations. In addition, some types of water, such as bicarbonate, sulfate or chlorinated water, have properties that go beyond the simple classification by fixed residue and have specific sensory and metabolic effects. These themes will be developed and explored in depth in the next publication.

4. Discussion

In recent years, the attention to natural mineral waters has increased significantly within the catering and food and wine sector [58,79,80]. Whereas water was once regarded as a neutral, secondary element within the culinary experience, it is now widely recognized as an essential component that can influence the taste and sensory balance of a meal [81,82].

The evolution of the discipline of hydrogastronomy could lead to a refinement of these criteria, integrating advanced scientific methodologies with the empirical experience of cooks, hydrosommeliers, and researchers in the field of food sciences [83,84]. At a time when the spotlight is on the quality of raw materials and the enhancement of gastronomic heritage, the role of mineral water as a key element of the culinary experience deserves to be explored and properly recognized [85].

Central to this new discipline is the hydrosommelier who plays a fundamental role in the creation and management of the water charter. This profession requires an in-depth knowledge of the organoleptic and chemical-physical properties of the different types of water, which are used to suggest combinations consistent with the selected dishes and the taste preferences of the customer [8,86,87]. The hydrosommelier not only recommends the choice of the most suitable water but also educates the customer as to the distinctive characteristics of natural mineral waters, emphasizing their value in modern gastronomy. This is often supported using a sensory analysis sheet. The sensory analysis of mineral water is emerging as a tool through which the organoleptic characteristics of water are understood with significant implications for high-end catering and for the enhancement of the overall gastronomic experience [88]. This innovative tool can be used by chefs, sommeliers, catering professionals, university students of the faculties of gastronomic sciences, food science and human nutrition, chemistry and food engineering, as well as enthusiasts, in choosing the most suitable water for different types of dishes, with the aim of improving gustatory harmony and amplifying the sensory qualities of the preparations [89,90].

Exploring the interaction between mineral water and food through a sensory approach represents an opportunity to enrich the understanding of the gastronomic experience, enhancing the role of natural mineral water. It ascends from being a simple neutral element to a protagonist in tasting and pairing with food. The in-depth analysis of the organoleptic characteristics of the different types of natural mineral waters allows us to develop targeted pairing strategies, capable of enhancing the quality of the dishes and improving the overall perception of the meal.

This innovative perspective, based on scientific criteria and careful sensory evaluation, can be a valuable resource, especially in an era in which the search for quality and gastronomic excellence is increasingly important. In this way, the correct combination of water and food becomes an essential key to elevating the culinary experience to a higher level.

A key outcome of this work, the Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters, which represents an innovative contribution to the field of hydrogastronomy, allows natural mineral waters to be classified in a functional and intuitive way. The integration of this scheme in the selection of water to pair with dishes can promote a more conscious and strategic approach to the gastronomic experience, enhancing the harmony between water and food.

More broadly, the adoption of a scientifically validated method for the choice of natural mineral water not only improves the overall perception of taste but can also open up new perspectives for high-level catering and sensory education.

One practical application of this approach lies in the design of a water list, which, similarly to the wine list, represents an opportunity to enhance mineral waters as the protagonists of the meal. The mineral water menu is not a simple list, but a cultural and educational tool that allows the customer to explore and appreciate the sensory diversity of the different waters, promoting a more evolved and refined vision of dining room service.

5. Conclusions

The approach proposed in this article is based on scientific criteria but the role of the interpreter—chef, hydrosommelier or consumer—in choosing the most suitable water for the gastronomic context remains fundamental. For this reason, we have proposed an innovative theoretical-applicative model, useful for chefs, hydrosommeliers, restaurateurs, students and scholars in the gastronomic sector. The integrated approach between sensory analysis and functional pyramid, if further developed, could help to redefine the role of natural mineral water in contemporary catering, promoting its strategic use as an identifying element of the gastronomic experience.

Hydrogastronomy, as an emerging discipline in the field of food and gastronomic sciences, represents a new frontier. It invites you to rediscover the value of natural mineral water and to exploit its potential in catering and culinary experiences. The combination of food and water, through a conscious and creative approach, can be transformed into a unique sensory experience. This concept is part of an interdisciplinary perspective that combines the chemical-physical analysis of natural mineral waters and the study of cultural traditions and gastronomic design, offering opportunities for innovation in the sector.

The taste of natural mineral water is complex and subjective, similar to that of other foods. The use of sensory evaluation sheets makes it possible to define taste perceptions and to classify the different types of water according to objective parameters. The chemical composition of natural mineral water, including fixed residue, electrical conductivity, hardness, pH, and effervescence level, influences sensory perception and helps identify optimal pairings between water and food.

In the context of global gastronomy, dishes define the cultural and historical identities of a people. This culinary heritage can be enhanced by including natural mineral water as an essential component. Each water, with its unique characteristics, tells the geological and hydrological history of the region of origin, enriching the gastronomic narrative.

The Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters aims to structure hydrogastronomy, combining food and water in a gustatory journey that emphasizes the complementarity between their organoleptic properties. Recent studies show that the combination of water and food can affect taste perception, digestion, and overall well-being. The attention to environmental sustainability and the enhancement of local water resources offers further opportunities to integrate hydrogastronomy into territorial promotion and food education strategies.

The Pyramid of Natural Mineral Waters represents a new horizon in gastronomic sciences, with implications ranging from high-quality dining to cultural awareness. This multidimensional approach highlights how water can take on a central role in the gastronomic context, creating sensory and cultural experiences that enhance the complexity of food and water. The culmination of this work is embodied in the Water Card, which goes beyond being a mere list of brands. Instead, it serves as a meaningful element that enriches the restaurant’s gastronomic offering. The Water Card invites customers to explore and appreciate the unique flavors of natural mineral waters, shifting the perception of water from a neutral accompaniment to an essential part of the meal. A thoughtfully designed water list enhances the menu by providing curated suggestions that guide diners toward discovering new and harmonious combinations, elevating their overall sensory experience.

The future goal is to broaden the field of investigation of hydrogastronomy as the classification based exclusively on the fixed residue, although effective, does not exhaust the complexity of mineral waters. Other parameters such as pH, the concentration of individual minerals (e.g., calcium, sodium, magnesium), the presence of specific compounds (bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides) and the type of effervescence significantly influence sensory properties and, therefore, deserve to be included in future integrative models. It is also valuable to introduce a systematic approach to the combination of food and water based on both the harmony and contrast of taste, and in particular, of taste trends. This method, already applied in the food and wine sector, could enhance the sensory characteristics of natural mineral water in relation to different dishes. In addition, the analysis of the nutrients present in natural mineral waters and their metabolic role will contribute to an integrated view of water as a functional component of the diet.