Salt Reduction Using a Smartphone Application Based on an Artificial Intelligence System for Dietary Assessment in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Single-Center Retrospective Cohort Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Outcome Measures and Data Collection
2.3. Intervention and Follow-Up
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics
3.2. Within-Group Comparison on Salt Reduction
3.3. Within-Group Comparisons on Secondary Outcomes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total (n = 35) | App Nonuser Group (n = 22) | App User Group (n = 13) | p Value | t Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 60.5 ± 15.0 | 63.3 ± 15.9 | 55.8 ± 12.7 | 0.15 | 1.47 |
Male/female | 21/14 (60/40%) | 13/9 (59/41%) | 8/5 (62/38%) | 1 | – |
Body weight (kg) | 65.6 ± 15.0 | 64.2 ± 15.7 | 68.1 ± 13.9 | 0.46 | −0.75 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.0 ± 3.8 | 23.6 ± 3.8 | 24.8 ± 3.8 | 0.35 | −0.95 |
CKD stages | |||||
2 | 11 (31%) | 8 (36%) | 3 (23%) | 0.43 | – |
3a | 11 (31%) | 6 (27%) | 5 (38%) | 0.71 | – |
3b | 3 (9%) | 1 (5%) | 2 (15%) | 0.54 | – |
4 | 10 (29%) | 7 (32%) | 3 (23%) | 0.71 | – |
Comorbidity | |||||
Hypertension | 26 (74%) | 16 (73%) | 10 (77%) | 1 | – |
Diabetes | 13 (37%) | 9 (41%) | 4 (31%) | 0.72 | – |
Cardiovascular disease | 3 (9%) | 2 (9%) | 1 (8%) | 1 | – |
Arrythmia | 5 (14%) | 4 (18%) | 1 (8%) | 0.63 | – |
Cerebrovascular disease | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 1 | – |
Malignancy | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 1 | – |
Use of antihypertensive drugs | |||||
Calcium channel blocker | 13 (37%) | 7 (32%) | 6 (46%) | 0.48 | – |
RAS inhibitor | 18 (51%) | 11 (50%) | 7 (54%) | 1 | – |
Diuretics | 2 (6%) | 0 (0%) | 2 (15%) | 0.13 | – |
Number of prescribed antihypertensive drugs | |||||
0 | 15 (42%) | 10 (45%) | 5 (38%) | 0.74 | – |
1 | 8 (23%) | 6 (27%) | 2 (13%) | 0.68 | – |
2 | 11 (31%) | 6 (27%) | 5 (38%) | 0.71 | – |
3 | 1 (3%) | 0 (0%) | 1 (7%) | 0.37 | – |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 132.0 ± 14.6 | 132.4 ± 12.6 | 131.4 ± 18.1 | 0.85 | 0.19 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 76.9 ± 12.0 | 75.7 ± 9.5 | 78.8 ± 15.6 | 0.47 | −0.74 |
Mean blood pressure (mmHg) | 95.3 ± 11.0 | 94.6 ± 8.2 | 96.4 ± 15.0 | 0.66 | −0.45 |
Total protein (g/L) | 7.2 ± 0.4 | 7.1 ± 0.4 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 0.08 | −1.81 |
Albumin (g/dL) | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.4 ± 0.2 | 0.07 | −1.90 |
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 13.2 ± 1.7 | 13.2 ± 1.9 | 13.2 ± 1.4 | 1 | 0.0027 |
Sodium (mEq/L) | 141.3 ± 1.9 | 141.6 ± 1.6 | 140.8 ± 2.3 | 0.26 | 1.14 |
Potassium (mEq/L) | 4.1 ± 0.5 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | 4.2 ± 0.4 | 0.46 | −0.74 |
Urea nitrogen (mg/dL) | 22.0 ± 13.8 | 22.2 ± 13.2 | 21.7 ± 15.2 | 0.92 | 0.10 |
Creatinine (mg/dL) | 1.36 ± 0.75 | 1.35 ± 0.76 | 1.38 ± 0.76 | 0.91 | −0.12 |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 50.9 ± 23.4 | 52.3 ± 24.4 | 48.7 ± 22.3 | 0.67 | 0.43 |
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (mg/dL) | 99.5 ± 29.4 | 98.9 ± 26.8 | 100.5 ± 34.6 | 0.88 | −0.16 |
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (mg/dL) | 62.9 ± 20.3 | 64.9 ± 22.5 | 60.8 ± 18.5 | 0.62 | 0.50 |
Triglyceride (mg/dL) | 131.7 ± 56.6 | 128.9 ± 59.3 | 136.5 ± 53.8 | 0.71 | −0.38 |
Estimated salt intake (g/day) | 7.86 ± 2.70 | 7.26 ± 2.57 | 8.87 ± 2.71 | 0.09 | −1.76 |
Urinary protein (g/day) | 0.54 ± 0.83 | 0.48 ± 0.67 | 0.63 ± 1.06 | 0.61 | −0.52 |
App User Group | App Nonuser Group | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline (0 Months) | 3 Months | p Value | 0 Months | 3 Months | p Value | |
Estimated salt intake (g/day) | 8.87 ± 2.71 | 7.71 ± 2.81 | 0.09 | 7.26 ± 2.57 | 8.21 ± 3.21 | 0.1 |
Urinary protein (g/day) | 0.63 ± 1.06 | 0.41 ± 0.81 | 0.07 | 0.47 ± 0.67 | 0.49 ± 0.65 | 0.83 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 131.9 ± 18.1 | 127.2 ± 14.8 | 0.23 | 132.4 ± 12.6 | 135.6 ± 9.2 | 0.18 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 78.8 ± 15.6 | 73.9 ± 14.4 | 0.03 | 75.7 ± 9.5 | 78.4 ± 10.5 | 0.23 |
Mean blood pressure (mmHg) | 96.4 ± 15.0 | 91.7 ± 13.5 | 0.07 | 94.6 ± 8.2 | 97.5 ± 7.8 | 0.18 |
Body weight (kg) | 68.1 ± 13.9 | 67.3 ± 14.4 | 0.08 | 64.2 ± 15.7 | 64.4 ± 15.2 | 0.51 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.8 ± 3.8 | 24.5 ± 4.0 | 0.07 | 23.6 ± 3.8 | 23.7 ± 3.7 | 0.4 |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 48.7 ± 22.2 | 48.1 ± 22.2 | 0.71 | 52.3 ± 24.4 | 52.2 ± 24.7 | 0.43 |
App User Group * | App Nonuser Group * | Effect of Intervention † | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 Months | 3 Months | 6 Months | 0 Months | 3 Months | 6 Months | Δ0−3 mo | p Value | Δ0−6 mo | p Value | |
Estimated salt intake (g/day) | 8.29 ± 0.56 | 7.12 ± 0.56 | 7.95 ± 0.63 | 7.70 ± 0.43 | 8.65 ± 0.43 | 8.32 ± 0.57 | −2.12 ± 0.96 | 0.03 | −0.96 ± 1.08 | 0.38 |
Urinary protein (g/day) | 0.56 ± 0.08 | 0.34 ± 0.08 | 0.26 ± 0.09 | 0.57 ± 0.06 | 0.58 ± 0.06 | 0.55 ± 0.08 | −0.23 ± 0.12 | 0.05 | −0.27 ± 0.14 | 0.05 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 132.0 ± 3.2 | 127.7 ± 3.2 | 131.1 ± 4.1 | 132.0 ± 2.5 | 135.3 ± 2.5 | 132.7 ± 3.3 | −7.5 ± 5.4 | 0.17 | −1.6 ± 6.3 | 0.8 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 78.1 ± 2.3 | 73.2 ± 2.3 | 76.8 ± 2.9 | 76.5 ± 1.8 | 79.2 ± 1.8 | 81.2 ± 2.4 | −7.6 ± 4.0 | 0.06 | −6.0 ± 4.7 | 0.21 |
Mean blood pressure (mmHg) | 96.1 ± 2.3 | 91.4 ± 2.3 | 94.9 ± 2.9 | 95.0 ± 1.8 | 97.8 ± 1.8 | 98.3 ± 2.4 | −7.6 ± 3.9 | 0.06 | −4.5 ± 4.6 | 0.33 |
Body weight (kg) | 63.9 ± 1.4 | 63.0 ± 1.4 | 63.3 ± 1.4 | 64.9 ± 1.1 | 65.1 ± 1.1 | 66.0 ± 1.2 | −1.1 ± 0.5 | 0.04 | −1.8 ± 0.6 | 0.003 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.1 ± 0.1 | 23.8 ± 0.1 | 23.9 ± 0.1 | 24.1 ± 0.1 | 24.2 ± 0.1 | 24.5 ± 0.1 | −0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.03 | −0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.002 |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 49.4 ± 0.9 | 48.8 ± 0.9 | 47.6 ± 0.9 | 49.5 ± 0.7 | 49.0 ± 0.7 | 46.8 ± 0.9 | −0.1 ± 1.6 | 0.96 | 0.8 ± 1.4 | 0.56 |
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Yanai, A.; Uchiyama, K.; Suganuma, S. Salt Reduction Using a Smartphone Application Based on an Artificial Intelligence System for Dietary Assessment in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Single-Center Retrospective Cohort Study. Kidney Dial. 2023, 3, 139-151. https://doi.org/10.3390/kidneydial3010012
Yanai A, Uchiyama K, Suganuma S. Salt Reduction Using a Smartphone Application Based on an Artificial Intelligence System for Dietary Assessment in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Single-Center Retrospective Cohort Study. Kidney and Dialysis. 2023; 3(1):139-151. https://doi.org/10.3390/kidneydial3010012
Chicago/Turabian StyleYanai, Akane, Kiyotaka Uchiyama, and Shinya Suganuma. 2023. "Salt Reduction Using a Smartphone Application Based on an Artificial Intelligence System for Dietary Assessment in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Single-Center Retrospective Cohort Study" Kidney and Dialysis 3, no. 1: 139-151. https://doi.org/10.3390/kidneydial3010012