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Progress in Gliotoxin Research

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Molecules

Molecules is a leading international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of chemistry published semimonthly online by MDPI. The International Society of Nucleosides, Nucleotides & Nucleic Acids (IS3NA), Spanish Society of Medicinal Chemistry (SEQT) and International Society of Heterocyclic Chemistry (ISHC) are affiliated with Molecules and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Reaxys, CaPlus / SciFinder, MarinLit, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Organic Chemistry)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Sections: published in 25 topical sections.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Molecules.
Companion journal: Foundations.
Journal Cluster of Chemical Reactions and Catalysis: Catalysts, Chemistry, Electrochem, Inorganics, Molecules, Organics, Oxygen, Photochem, Reactions, Sustainable Chemistry.

Impact Factor: 4.6 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1420-3049

Latest Articles

22 pages, 1196 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polyphenol-Enriched Fraction from Chestnut Shells as a Source of Bioactive Compounds for Friedreich Ataxia

by Giuseppe Squillaci, Grazia M. Cotticelli, Virginia Carbone, Avery O. Westfall, Robert B. Wilson and Alessandra Morana

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010070 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

We explored the ability of the low molecular weight, polyphenol-rich fractions obtained from chestnut shells to inhibit ferroptosis in Friedreich Ataxia (FRDA), an inherited neuro- and cardio-degenerative disease. We prepared an aqueous extract by an eco-sustainable method and obtained a polyphenol-rich fraction (fraction [...] Read more.

We explored the ability of the low molecular weight, polyphenol-rich fractions obtained from chestnut shells to inhibit ferroptosis in Friedreich Ataxia (FRDA), an inherited neuro- and cardio-degenerative disease. We prepared an aqueous extract by an eco-sustainable method and obtained a polyphenol-rich fraction (fraction D) of molecular weight less than 1.0 kDa after molecular size fractionation. The total phenols were 173.28 ± 4.97 μg gallic acid equivalents/mg fraction, and analysis by UHPLC-ITMSⁿ and RP-HPLC-UV revealed thirteen phenolic compounds with gallic acid and protocatechuic acid (PCA) as the most abundant (26.29 ± 2.19 and 4.93 ± 0.19 μg/mg fraction, respectively). Using a cellular assay based on patient-derived FRDA fibroblasts, we observed that chestnut shell dry extract at 20 µg/mL increased the survival of cells stressed with the ferroptosis inducer erastin from 8% to 45% and that this activity was dose-dependent. Fraction D at 20 µg/mL showed similar strong activity, increasing cell survival from 0.5% to 14% and decreasing lipid peroxidation by 42%. PCA, the most efficacious compound, doubled cell survival and decreased lipid peroxidation by 20%. Moreover, PCA increased the survival of cells in which frataxin was knocked down 1.5-fold and decreased ALOX12 expression. Our data suggest that PCA could be a promising molecule to explore FRDA pathophysiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Characterization, and Potential Applications of Bioactive Molecules from Natural Sources, 4th Edition)

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23 pages, 7325 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D Multilayered DDM-Modified Nickel Foam Electrode for Advanced Alkaline Water Electrolysis

by Elitsa Petkucheva, Galin Borisov, Jordan Iliev, Elefteria Lefterova and Evelina Slavcheva

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010069 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Advanced alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) in “zero-gap” configuration is a promising approach for low-temperature hydrogen production, but its efficiency strongly depends on the design and surface chemistry of nickel-based electrodes. Here, we present a simple dip-and-drying method (DDM) to modify commercial nickel foam [...] Read more.

Advanced alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) in “zero-gap” configuration is a promising approach for low-temperature hydrogen production, but its efficiency strongly depends on the design and surface chemistry of nickel-based electrodes. Here, we present a simple dip-and-drying method (DDM) to modify commercial nickel foam with a Ni–FeOOH/PTFE microporous catalytic layer and evaluate its electrochemical performance in 1 M KOH and in a laboratory zero-gap cell with a Zirfon^® Perl 500 UTP diaphragm, through circulating 25 wt.% KOH. The FeSO₄-assisted DDM treatment generates mixed Ni–Fe oxyhydroxide surface species, while PTFE imparts control hydrophobicity, enhancing both catalytic activity and gas-release behavior. Annealing the electrode (DDM-NF-CAT-A) results in a cell voltage of 2.45 V at 1 A·cm⁻² and 80 °C, demonstrating moderate performance comparable to other Ni-based electrodes prepared via low-complexity methods, though below that of optimized state-of-the-art zero-gap systems. Short-term durability tests (80 h at 0.5 A·cm⁻²) indicate stable operation, but long-term industrial performance was not assessed. These findings illustrate the potential of the DDM approach as a simple, low-cost route to structured nickel foam electrodes and provide a foundation for further optimization of catalyst loading, microstructure, and long-term stability for practical AWE applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 30th Anniversary of Molecules—Recent Advances in Electrochemistry)

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35 pages, 6576 KB

Open AccessReview

Hydrazine Derivatives as C-Centered Radical Precursors for C-C Bond Formation Reactions

by Elena R. Lopat’eva, Igor B. Krylov and Alexander O. Terent’ev

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010067 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Organic monosubstituted hydrazine derivatives (Ar-NHNH₂, RC(O)-NHNH₂, Alkyl-NHNH₂) are synthetically available, atom-efficient and stable sources of C-centered radicals upon oxidation with extrusion of the energetically favorable N₂ molecule. This review summarizes the synthetic application of monosubstituted hydrazine [...] Read more.

Organic monosubstituted hydrazine derivatives (Ar-NHNH₂, RC(O)-NHNH₂, Alkyl-NHNH₂) are synthetically available, atom-efficient and stable sources of C-centered radicals upon oxidation with extrusion of the energetically favorable N₂ molecule. This review summarizes the synthetic application of monosubstituted hydrazine derivatives (arylhydrazines, carbazates, acylhydrazides, hydrazine carboxamides and alkylhydrazines) in free-radical C-C bond-forming reactions. The main application directions in this field are (a) alkene difunctionalization, (b) cascade cyclization initiated by the addition of hydrazine-derived C-centered radicals to acrylamides and isonitriles, and (c) CH-functionalization of (hetero)arenes via C-centered radical addition followed by oxidative dehydrogenation (re-aromatization). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Organic Chemistry)

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18 pages, 3566 KB

Open AccessReview

Flavonoids in Plants and Human Health: From Biosynthesis to Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders

by Joanna Lemanowicz, Kinga Gawlińska, Iwona Jaskulska, Dariusz Jaskulski and Mateusz Sar

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010066 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Flavonoids are a class of natural plant compounds that are categorised within the polyphenolic group. It is widely acknowledged that their structural diversity results in a wide distribution within food sources, thus leading to a concomitant wide spectrum of biological activity. This review [...] Read more.

Flavonoids are a class of natural plant compounds that are categorised within the polyphenolic group. It is widely acknowledged that their structural diversity results in a wide distribution within food sources, thus leading to a concomitant wide spectrum of biological activity. This review provides an updated overview of the main flavonoid subclasses, including flavonols, flavones, flavanones, flavanols, anthocyanins, and isoflavones, and includes an examination of their chemical properties and biosynthetic pathways. The present study will discuss the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on flavonoid function in plants, including their role in ultraviolet protection, stress tolerance, and defence signalling. The regular consumption of foods rich in flavonoids has been demonstrated to be associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular, metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. This observation underscores the significance of flavonoids in a balanced diet. Medicinal plants play an important role in this task. The mechanisms of action of this substance include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, modulation of signalling pathways, and neuroprotective functions. The present findings underscore the significance of flavonoids as multifunctional bioactive molecules, which hold considerable potential for preventive and therapeutic applications. However, further well-designed human studies are necessary to determine effective dosage, long-term safety, and clinical relevance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutritional and Bioactive Components of Edible Parts of Medicinal Plants)

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20 pages, 2159 KB

Open AccessArticle

¹H-NMR Analysis of Wine Metabolites: Method Development and Validation

by Guillaume Leleu, Rémi Butelle, Daniel Jacob, Lou-Ann Kurkiewicz, Jean-Claude Boulet, Catherine Deborde, Matthieu Dubernet, Laetitia Gaillard, Antoine Galvan, Karen Gaudin, Alexandra Gossé, Markus Herderich, Annick Moing, Sophie Rosset, Flynn Watson, Gregory Da Costa and Tristan Richard

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010065 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Wine, as a high-value product, is vulnerable to counterfeiting. To tackle increasingly sophisticated fraud, innovative analytical approaches are required. However, they must undergo rigorous validation. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-NMR) is intrinsically quantitative, reproducible, and fast, making it a promising [...] Read more.

Wine, as a high-value product, is vulnerable to counterfeiting. To tackle increasingly sophisticated fraud, innovative analytical approaches are required. However, they must undergo rigorous validation. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-NMR) is intrinsically quantitative, reproducible, and fast, making it a promising tool for official control. This study presents the development and validation of a standardised and fully automated workflow for the quantification of 20 oenologically relevant compounds, including organic acids, sugars, alcohols, esters, phenolics, and an alkaloid. The method combines optimised sample preparation, external quantification standards, spectrometer calibration, and a dedicated R package (RnmrQuant1D) for fully automated spectral processing, enabling high-throughput and operator-independent analysis. Validation was performed under intermediate precision according to OIV metrological standards, evaluating accuracy, precision, robustness, limits of quantification, and measurement uncertainty. The results demonstrated excellent linearity, trueness, and reproducibility, matching the targeted analytical performance. Measurement uncertainties were estimated both by conventional linear modelling and by a dynamic approach better suited to detection limits. The workflow is easy to implement, requires minimal sample consumption, and substantially reduces operator bias. Beyond validating a robust method, this study provides a framework for harmonised, transferable ¹H-NMR workflows that could support large-scale databases, integration with chemometric models, and ultimately, ¹H-NMR’s recognition as a relevant method for wine authentication and quality control. This work fills a crucial gap in wine analysis by uniting practical application and rigorous methods, enabling broader adoption in control laboratories worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 30th Anniversary of Molecules—Recent Advances in Food Chemistry)

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29 pages, 3938 KB

Open AccessReview

Understanding the Role of Base in Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenation: A Comparative Review

by Batoul Taleb, Assi Al Mousawi, Ali Ghadban, Ismail Hijazi, Rasha Al Ahmar, Mikhael Bechelany and Akram Hijazi

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010064 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Catalytic transfer hydrogenation (CTH) provides a practical and sustainable approach for reducing unsaturated compounds, serving as an alternative to high-pressure H₂ in laboratory and fine chemical contexts. This broad reaction class includes asymmetric transfer hydrogenation (ATH), a key strategy in enantioselective synthesis [...] Read more.

Catalytic transfer hydrogenation (CTH) provides a practical and sustainable approach for reducing unsaturated compounds, serving as an alternative to high-pressure H₂ in laboratory and fine chemical contexts. This broad reaction class includes asymmetric transfer hydrogenation (ATH), a key strategy in enantioselective synthesis due to its operational simplicity, high stereocontrol, and compatibility with sensitive functional groups. A central variable governing CTH efficiency is the role of bases, which may function as essential activators, co-hydrogen donors, or be entirely absent depending on the catalytic system. This review provides a comparison of base-assisted, base-free, and base-as-co-hydrogen-donor CTH methodologies across diverse metal catalysts and substrates. We highlight how bases such as triethylamine, K₂CO₃, and NaOH facilitate catalyst activation, modulate hydride formation, and tune reactivity and selectivity. The dual function of bases in formic-acid-driven systems is examined alongside synergistic effects observed with mixed-base additives. In contrast, base-free CTH platforms demonstrate how tailored ligand frameworks, metal-ligand cooperativity, and engineered surface basicity can eliminate the need for external additives while maintaining high activity. Through mechanistic analysis and cross-system comparison, this review identifies the key structural, electronic, and environmental factors that differentiate base-assisted from base-free pathways. Emerging trends—including greener hydrogen donors, advanced catalyst architectures, and additive-minimized protocols—are discussed to guide future development of sustainable CTH processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Featured Reviews in Organic Chemistry 2025–2026)

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31 pages, 1944 KB

Open AccessReview

Strategies to Determine and Mitigate Pesticide Residues in Food

by Ana Rita Oliveira, Sílvia Cruz Barros, Duarte Torres and Ana Sanches Silva

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010063 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

This review provides a comprehensive overview of strategies to mitigate pesticide residues in food, examining both household and industrial processing techniques alongside the emerging role of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Simple household methods, such as washing, peeling, and thermal processing (e.g., boiling, frying), are [...] Read more.

This review provides a comprehensive overview of strategies to mitigate pesticide residues in food, examining both household and industrial processing techniques alongside the emerging role of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Simple household methods, such as washing, peeling, and thermal processing (e.g., boiling, frying), are effective. For instance, washing with running water achieves a reduction of up to 77% in residue for some vegetables. Additionally, processes like jam-making or frying can significantly reduce specific residues. Industrially, advanced methods such as ozonated water washing, ultrasonification, and cold plasma are employed for high efficiency while preserving food quality. Critically, AI is emerging as a powerful, indirect tool through predictive modelling, AI-assisted sorting/screening, and consumer guidance, enhancing precision agriculture and regulatory analytics. The review paper concludes that a combination of these diverse methods is essential for minimizing pesticide exposure and ensuring a safer food supply. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Natural Compounds Research: Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology)

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18 pages, 6052 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Effect of Peony (Paeonia ostii) Flower Extract Against Tape Stripping-Induced Skin Barrier Impairment in Mice

by Ruiying Yang, Jicheng Yang, Gaiying He, Yusheng Zhang, Xue Jiang, Jiyong Wang, Hongjun Yang and Chengxiang Shang

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010062 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

Background: Skin barrier dysfunction leads to increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), inflammation, and compromised skin protection. While Paeonia ostii (peony) flowers are recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for their reducing melanin synthesis, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging effects, their role in repairing skin barrier damage [...] Read more.

Background: Skin barrier dysfunction leads to increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), inflammation, and compromised skin protection. While Paeonia ostii (peony) flowers are recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for their reducing melanin synthesis, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging effects, their role in repairing skin barrier damage has not been fully explored. Methods: We investigated the therapeutic potential of peony flower extract (PFE) in the tape-stripping-induced mouse model with skin barrier damage. Skin surface imaging, hydration measurements, H&E, proteomics, qPCR, and immunofluorescence were applied to clarify the potential mechanism of PFE in attenuating skin barrier impairment. Results: PFE significantly reduced erythema, TEWL, and edema while restoring epidermal architecture. Proteomics analysis identified cornified envelope formation and tight junction assembly as essential mechanisms in skin barrier repair. It increased the expression of key skin barrier proteins, including filaggrin (Flg), involucrin (Ivl), loricrin (Lor), claudin-1 (Cldn1), tight junction protein 1 (Tjp1), and occludin (Ocln). Conclusions: This study demonstrates that PFE restores skin barrier integrity by upregulating key structural proteins within the cornified envelope and tight junction. These findings suggest that PFE is a promising therapeutic candidate for skin barrier repair, with high potential in translational medicine applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Skin Protective Potential of Extractions from Natural Plants)

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14 pages, 540 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Potential, and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity of the Essential Oil from Croton alnifolius Lam.

by Claudia Cruz, Pablo Muñoz, Nixon Cumbicus, Vladimir Morocho and Omar Malagón

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010061 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2025

This study reports the first chemical characterization of the essential oil of Croton alnifolius. A very low yield of 0.028% ± 0.0012 (w/w) was obtained by steam distillation for 4 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus. The chemical composition [...] Read more.

This study reports the first chemical characterization of the essential oil of Croton alnifolius. A very low yield of 0.028% ± 0.0012 (w/w) was obtained by steam distillation for 4 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus. The chemical composition of the oil was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC–MS) for compound identification and by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC–FID) for quantification. A total of 49 compounds were identified, representing 94.65% of the total oil composition. The chemical profile was dominated by hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes (53.11%) and hydrocarbon monoterpenes (32.20%). The major constituents included (E)-caryophyllene (17.42%), α-pinene (14.53%), myrcene (9.51%), germacrene D (9.92%), and β-chamigrene (5.48%). The biological activity of the essential oil was also evaluated: it exhibited weak antimicrobial activity against Enterococcus faecium with a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) value of 1000 μg/mL, strong antioxidant potential in the ABTS assay (SC₅₀ = 28.43 ± 1.0 μg/mL), and moderate acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity (61.74 ± 1.02 μg/mL). These results indicate that the unique sesquiterpene rich chemical profile of C. alnifolius contributes to its antioxidant and neuroprotective potential, supporting its relevance as a promising source of bioactive natural products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Activity of Essential Oils, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 870 KB

Open AccessArticle

AZA Toxin Profiles by LC-HRMS in Shellfish from Šibenik Bay: AZA-2 Predominant Analog

by Antonija Bulić, Ivana Pezelj, Ivana Ujević, Tanja Bogdanović and Stjepan Orhanović

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010060 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine polyether biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that accumulate in filter-feeding organisms and pose a threat to human health and seafood safety. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of azaspiracid analogs in shellfish from the Adriatic Sea with the use [...] Read more.

Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine polyether biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that accumulate in filter-feeding organisms and pose a threat to human health and seafood safety. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of azaspiracid analogs in shellfish from the Adriatic Sea with the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry. AZA-2 was quantified in samples collected from Šibenik Bay between January and May 2024, with the highest concentrations observed in early January. In addition to AZA-2, several known analogs (AZA-6, AZA-9, AZA-10, AZA-19, AZA-41, and AZA-43) and a potentially new analog (m/z 884.4928) were also detected. The fragmentation patterns of this new analog indicate a structural similarity to AZA-19 with a possible double bond modification. Potential pitfalls regarding the misinterpretation of spectra derived from molecules containing ¹³C atoms were recognized and addressed. The presence of multiple analogs, some of which have high toxic potential, suggests that regulatory practice should consider including more than three analogs in the monitoring program. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products Chemistry)

21 pages, 4065 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Whitening Activity of Sialoglycopeptide of Chalaza from Liquid Egg Process

by Yanzhao Ma, Ziyi Jiang, Xinyi Jin, Jianrong Wu and Minjie Gao

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010059 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

The liquid egg processing industry generates a significant amount of solid byproduct known as chalaza (CHA), which is rich in sialic acid and exhibits notable biological activity. In this study, the preparation process, N-glycan profile, and skin-whitening activity of CHA-derived glycopeptides (CHAH) were [...] Read more.

The liquid egg processing industry generates a significant amount of solid byproduct known as chalaza (CHA), which is rich in sialic acid and exhibits notable biological activity. In this study, the preparation process, N-glycan profile, and skin-whitening activity of CHA-derived glycopeptides (CHAH) were investigated. By comparing the hydrolysis efficiency of trypsin, alcalase, and papain, a dual-enzyme hydrolysis strategy was developed: initial hydrolysis with 1.5% trypsin for 3 h, followed by treatment with 1% papain for 2 h. The resulting CHAH exhibited both a high hydrolysis yield and strong antioxidant activity. The sialic acid content in CHAH reached 1.96% (w/w), and 14 distinct N-glycan chain structures were identified. The whitening effect of CHAH was assessed using a combined approach involving an in vitro B16 cell model and an in vivo zebrafish model. CHAH was found to inhibit tyrosinase activity and reduce melanin production in a concentration-dependent manner. Mechanistic studies revealed that CHAH acts by significantly downregulating the expression of key genes involved in melanin synthesis, including MITF, TYR, TYRP1, and TYRP2. This study establishes an efficient preparation method for CHAH, elucidates its skin-whitening efficacy and underlying mechanism, and provides experimental support for the potential industrial application of CHAH as an active ingredient in skincare products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds in Cosmetic Applications)

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19 pages, 440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical Profile of Convolvulus cantabrica Extracts and Their Biological Activity

by Khaled Ben Elwalid Mahdadi, Zina Allaoua, Mohamed Sabri Bensaad, Fatima Belahssini, Chawki Bensouici, Diana C. G. A. Pinto, Yavuz Selim Cakmak, Hamada Haba, Dimitris Mossialos, Dimitrios Stagos and Salah Akkal

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010058 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

The present work provides a detailed study of Convolvulus cantabrica L., a plant belonging to the family Convolvulaceae and the genus Convolvulus. The selection of this plant was based on the long-standing ethnobotanical relevance of its genus, which was attributed to the [...] Read more.

The present work provides a detailed study of Convolvulus cantabrica L., a plant belonging to the family Convolvulaceae and the genus Convolvulus. The selection of this plant was based on the long-standing ethnobotanical relevance of its genus, which was attributed to the richness of its species in phenolic and flavonoids compounds. Moreover, this species as remained unexplored to date. Our investigation includes both chemical and biological aspects. To assess the chemical composition of the hydroalcoholic extract of the plant, High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis was performed. Rosmarinic Acid (161.9 ppm) and Chlorogenic Acid (153.8 ppm) had the highest concentrations. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis demonstrated the presence of Fatty Acids and Esters (70.81%), sesquiterpene and diterpenes (19.51%) and fatty alcohols (6.02%). In addition, the ethyl acetate extract exhibited the highest phenolic contents (606.42 µg/mL) and flavonoid contents (363.75 µg/mL). The tested extracts, especially the ethyl acetate and butanol extracts, exhibited strong antioxidant capacity in DPPH (IC₅₀: 13.60 ± 1.30 µg/mL for ethyl acetate extract and 17.69 ± 1.17 µg/mL for butanol extract), ABTS (IC₅₀: 7.26 ± 0.01 µg/mL for ethyl acetate extract and 6.90 ± 0.18 µg/mL for butanol extract) and FRP (IC₅₀: 14.89 ± 0.90 µg/mL for ethyl acetate extract and 23.14 ± 0.60 µg/mL for butanol extract) assays compared with extracts from other species of this genus. Moreover, the petroleum ether extract demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity (IC₅₀: 419.30 ± 4.48 µg/mL). Regarding antibacterial activity, the plant extracts, especially the ethyl acetate, hydroalcoholic and petroleum ether extracts, inhibited the growth of Bacillus cereus. Overall, our data indicate that Convolvulus cantabrica L., is rich in secondary metabolites, particularly polyphenols, and exhibits significant biological activities, especially antioxidant properties. These results validate the traditional use of C. cantabrica and position it as a promising source of natural antioxidants with potential pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemopreventive Activity of Natural Products)

27 pages, 3810 KB

Open AccessArticle

Process-Modulated Flavor Formation and Establishment of Predictive Modeling for Aroma in Spicy Anchovies

by Zishan Liao, Qian Liu, Wenli Kang, Tao Feng, Zemin Ding, Shixian Yin and Shiqing Song

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010057 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

Research on spicy anchovies lacks dedicated sensory frameworks, reliable aroma identification, and systematic processing–flavor insights. In this study, 21 spicy anchovy samples with different processing parameters were selected as research objects. The effects of process modifications on the sensory attributes and aroma composition [...] Read more.

Research on spicy anchovies lacks dedicated sensory frameworks, reliable aroma identification, and systematic processing–flavor insights. In this study, 21 spicy anchovy samples with different processing parameters were selected as research objects. The effects of process modifications on the sensory attributes and aroma composition of spicy anchovies were investigated through sensory evaluation and aroma analysis. A product-specific flavor wheel (5 modalities, 136 terms) with 17 key descriptors was built via Quantitative Descriptive Analysis. GC-O combined with AEDA/AECA identified 13 key aroma compounds in the commercial sample. HS-SPME-GC-MS detected 73 volatiles across all samples, among which olefins (34 species) were dominant and their formation was linked to lipid oxidation and high-temperature processing. Odor activity values and sensory data revealed that a frying temperature of 180 °C promoted nonanal and (E)-β-ocimene to enhance “fried seafood aroma”; Xiaomila chili pepper boosted “initial spiciness” via capsaicin; and high Sichuan pepper masked “fishy off-flavor” via linalyl acetate. A prediction model for aroma sensory attributes was established and the prediction correlations for “braised beef in soy sauce aroma” and “fried seafood aroma” were relatively high (r = 0.90 and 0.96, respectively). This study provides theoretical guidance for the flavor improvement of spicy anchovies. Full article

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25 pages, 827 KB

Open AccessReview

Application of Photo-Fenton Process to Highly Saline Water Matrices: Effect of Inorganic Ions on Iron Speciation

by Ivan Vallés, Javier Moreno-Andrés, Iván Sciscenko, Lucas Santos-Juanes and Antonio Arques

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010056 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

The photo-Fenton process has been widely studied for the treatment of organic pollutants and disinfection in a wide range of scenarios. Nevertheless, its efficiency decreased when applied to complex matrices, as in the case of most advanced oxidation processes. Despite the interferences caused [...] Read more.

The photo-Fenton process has been widely studied for the treatment of organic pollutants and disinfection in a wide range of scenarios. Nevertheless, its efficiency decreased when applied to complex matrices, as in the case of most advanced oxidation processes. Despite the interferences caused by different anions, the photo-Fenton is able to obtain good degradation values for pollutants and microorganisms, especially in combination with other methods; however, it depends on the matrix to be treated. Due to the lack of studies and reviews in this field, this paper reviewed the outcome of the inorganic ions present on highly saline water matrices (more than 1 g L⁻¹ of chlorides, fluorides, bromides, sulphates, carbonates or bicarbonates, borates, phosphates and nitrates/nitrites) on the Fenton-based processes, focusing on their outcome on iron speciation and their scavenger effect. Also, the most relevant works so far for the abatement of microcontaminants and disinfection by this process on highly saline matrices have been revised. Special emphasis is on the efficiency of the process, considering the relevant industries referred to. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Wastewater Treatment Based on AOPs, ARPs, and AORPs)

22 pages, 1187 KB

Open AccessReview

Preclinical Risk Assessment of Plant Lectins with Pharmacological Applications: A Narrative Review

by Amanda de Oliveira Marinho, Maria Nívea Bezerra da Silva, Suéllen Pedrosa da Silva, Isabella Coimbra Vila Nova, Jainaldo Alves da Costa, Patrícia Maria Guedes Paiva, Lidiane Pereira de Albuquerque, Emmanuel Viana Pontual, Leydianne Leite de Siqueira Patriota and Thiago Henrique Napoleão

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010055 (registering DOI) - 23 Dec 2025

Plants have been used for medicinal purposes both intuitively and based on traditional knowledge for centuries. Recently, however, there has been a significant increase in research focused on medicinal plants to meet the growing demands of the pharmaceutical industry. As a result, it [...] Read more.

Plants have been used for medicinal purposes both intuitively and based on traditional knowledge for centuries. Recently, however, there has been a significant increase in research focused on medicinal plants to meet the growing demands of the pharmaceutical industry. As a result, it has become essential to evaluate the safety of natural products for human use. This review examines in vitro and in vivo toxicity studies of lectins, a class of plant proteins with pharmacological applications. The reviewed data indicate that many of these proteins do not appear to be toxic to human and animal cells, nor when administered to rodents through oral, intraperitoneal, or intravenous routes. However, some lectins have shown toxicity under certain conditions, such as depending on the administration route, dose, and treatment duration. These adverse effects may include behavioral changes, antinutritional effects, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, pancreatic hypertrophy, allergic reactions, and even death. Therefore, it is crucial to prioritize toxicological studies to ensure the safety of these plant proteins as potential drug candidates in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Bioactives for Health: Therapeutic Promise and Safety Considerations)

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16 pages, 939 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Azidophenylselenylation of Glycals for the Efficient Synthesis of Phenyl 2-Azido-2-Deoxy-1-Selenoglycosides: Solvent Control

by Bozhena S. Komarova, Olesia V. Belova, Timur M. Volkov, Dmitry V. Yashunsky and Nikolay E. Nifantiev

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010054 - 23 Dec 2025

Azidophenylselenylation (APS) of glycals is a straightforward transformation for preparing phenylseleno 2-azido-2-deoxy derivatives, which are useful blocks in the synthesis of 2-amino-2-deoxy-glycoside-containing oligosaccharides. However, the previously developed APS methods employing the CH₂Cl₂ as solvent, Ph₂Se₂-PhI(OAc)₂ [...] Read more.

Azidophenylselenylation (APS) of glycals is a straightforward transformation for preparing phenylseleno 2-azido-2-deoxy derivatives, which are useful blocks in the synthesis of 2-amino-2-deoxy-glycoside-containing oligosaccharides. However, the previously developed APS methods employing the CH₂Cl₂ as solvent, Ph₂Se₂-PhI(OAc)₂ (commonly known as BAIB), and a source of N₃⁻ are still not universal and show limited efficiency for glycals with gluco- and galacto-configurations. To address this limitation, we revisited both heterogeneous (using NaN₃) and homogeneous (using TMSN₃) APS approaches and optimized the reaction conditions. We found that glycal substrates with galacto- and gluco-configurations require distinct conditions. Galacto-substrates react relatively rapidly, and their conversion depends mainly on efficient azide-ion transfer into the organic phase, which is promoted by nitrile solvents (CH₃CN, EtCN). In contrast, for the slower gluco-configured substrates, complete conversion requires a non-polar solvent still capable of azide-ion transfer, such as benzene. These observations were applied to the optimized synthesis of phenylseleno 2-azido-2-deoxy derivatives of d-galactose, d-glucose, l-fucose, l-quinovose, and l-rhamnose. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of the Bioorganic Chemistry Section of Molecules)

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28 pages, 725 KB

Open AccessReview

Tomato Pomace: Underestimated Sustainable Cosmetic/Pharmaceutical Raw Source

by Ewa Maciejczyk, Anna Wajs-Bonikowska, Mirella Batory and Elzbieta Budzisz

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010053 - 23 Dec 2025

This article explores the multifaceted potential of tomato pomace (TP) as a sustainable resource for the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, with a particular focus on the critical discussion surrounding peel–seed separation processes. Despite the significant volume of TP generated globally, valued molecules such [...] Read more.

This article explores the multifaceted potential of tomato pomace (TP) as a sustainable resource for the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, with a particular focus on the critical discussion surrounding peel–seed separation processes. Despite the significant volume of TP generated globally, valued molecules such as carotenoids, polyphenols, and high-quality oils remain underutilized. The separation of seeds from peels is highlighted as a critical step in the valorization of TP, as both components offer distinct physicochemical properties and bioactive constituents that significantly influence extraction efficiency and product quality. Various separation methods, including wet and dry techniques, have been innovatively developed; however, they present challenges such as resource consumption, operational complexity, and environmental concerns. The discussion advocates for a whole-pomace processing strategy that could streamline operations, enhance extraction efficiency, and create sustainable pathways for resource optimization. Additionally, the article highlights the importance of incorporating TP-derived compounds into cosmetic formulations and pharmaceutical products, which could lead to the development of new enzymes, antioxidants, and colorants that contribute to health and wellness. By championing the valorization of TP, the article advocates for a redefined perception of food waste, encouraging its utilization in sustainable practices that align with environmental goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Chemistry and Bioactive Compounds in Relation to Health, 2nd Edition)

18 pages, 3399 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Electrochemical Detection of Levofloxacin Using a Polydopamine-Based Molecular Imprinting Polymer

by Alessandro Lo Presti, Fabricio Nicolas Molinari, Chiara Abate, Enza Fazio, Carmelo Corsaro, Ottavia Giuffrè, Anna Piperno, Giulia Neri and Claudia Foti

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010052 - 23 Dec 2025

The integration of molecular imprinting technology with electrochemical methods has become fundamental in the development of next-generation sensors. This study explores two different strategies for developing a dopamine-based molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for the electrochemical sensing of levofloxacin. In the first case, the [...] Read more.

The integration of molecular imprinting technology with electrochemical methods has become fundamental in the development of next-generation sensors. This study explores two different strategies for developing a dopamine-based molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for the electrochemical sensing of levofloxacin. In the first case, the MIP is developed by electropolymerization on a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) surface using cyclic voltammetry, while in the second, the MIP is obtained by an oxidation process, and the resulting dispersion is drop-cast on the SPCE surface. The same approach is used for a non-imprinted polymer. The physicochemical properties of the synthesized materials and the surface morphology of the modified electrodes are investigated by several techniques. Differential pulse voltammetry is used to evaluate the performance of the modified electrodes, assessing their linear concentration range, limit of detection, and limit of quantification, together with repeatability and selectivity. MIP-based SPCEs obtained with these two fabrication strategies exhibited comparable imprinting factor values and linear concentration ranges, along with comparable limits of detection and quantification. The MIP-based SPCE obtained by electropolymerization showed greater repeatability, whereas the MIP-based SPCE produced by drop-casting provided higher sensitivity in levofloxacin detection. Full article

11 pages, 2562 KB

Open AccessArticle

A MXene-Based Solvent-Free Nanofluid Lubricant for Friction and Wear Reduction

by Wenfeng Zhu, Xuwu Luo, Junfeng Xie, Yaoming Zhang, Mifeng Zhao, Junhui Wei, Lei Li, Houbu Li and Peipei Li

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010051 - 23 Dec 2025

With the rapid advancements in industrial technology, the demand for high-performance lubrication has surpassed the capabilities of traditional solid or liquid lubricants. In this study, a novel MXene-based solvent-free lubricating nanofluid was developed through the surface functionalization of Ti₃C₂T [...] Read more.

With the rapid advancements in industrial technology, the demand for high-performance lubrication has surpassed the capabilities of traditional solid or liquid lubricants. In this study, a novel MXene-based solvent-free lubricating nanofluid was developed through the surface functionalization of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanosheets. This innovative material combines the superior mechanical properties of solid Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanosheets with the stable flow and rapid self-repairing capabilities of liquid lubricants. The successful synthesis of the MXene-based solvent-free nanofluid lubricant was confirmed through a series of characterization techniques, and it was demonstrated that this nanofluid maintained excellent flowability at room temperature. Subsequent tribological tests revealed that the friction coefficient and the wear performance of the MXene-based solvent-free nanofluid lubricant improved with increasing mass concentrations of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanosheets under consistently applied loads. These results indicate that the MXene-based solvent-free nanofluid lubricant significantly reduces friction and wear, showcasing its potential as a high-performance lubricant for industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Modification of Materials and Their Applications)

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15 pages, 785 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Biological Activities and Phytochemical Analyses of Mespilus germanica L.

by Ekin Kurtul, Şükran Öztürk, Selen Tekin, Özge Yılmaz and Özlem Bahadır-Acıkara

Molecules 2026, 31(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010050 - 23 Dec 2025

Mespilus germanica L. is one of the two species of the genus Mespilus L., and is distributed in several regions, including Southeastern Europe, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and parts of the Middle East. The fruits of the plant are consumed as food, and the [...] Read more.

Mespilus germanica L. is one of the two species of the genus Mespilus L., and is distributed in several regions, including Southeastern Europe, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and parts of the Middle East. The fruits of the plant are consumed as food, and the fruits, leaves, and stem bark are traditionally used for various systemic disorders, including gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary tract, and skin conditions, as well as menstrual irregularities. In our study, the anti-inflammatory potential and antimicrobial activities of aqueous-methanolic extracts prepared from ripe (MGRF) and unripe fruits (MGUF), leaves (MGL), and stem bark (MGB) of M. germanica were evaluated in vitro. Quercetin, catechin, epicatechin, ellagic acid, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. MGL exhibited the strongest activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = 8 µg/mL), while MGB was most active against Enterococcus faecalis (MIC = 4 µg/mL), and fruit extracts were effective against resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (MIC = 16–32 µg/mL). Membrane-protective effects were more pronounced in MGUF and MGB, whereas MGL demonstrated the highest protein stabilization activity. Leaves also contained the highest levels of chlorogenic acid and epicatechin. These findings support the traditional use of M. germanica, though further studies are required to explore its therapeutic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds and Small Molecules with Neuroprotective and Anti-Inflammatory Functions)

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