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Toxins, Volume 8, Issue 6 (June 2016) – 33 articles

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5502 KiB  
Article
High in Vitro Anti-Tumor Efficacy of Dimeric Rituximab/Saporin-S6 Immunotoxin
by Massimo Bortolotti, Andrea Bolognesi, Maria Giulia Battelli and Letizia Polito
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060192 - 21 Jun 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4945
Abstract
The anti-CD20 mAb Rituximab has revolutionized lymphoma therapy, in spite of a number of unresponsive or relapsing patients. Immunotoxins, consisting of toxins coupled to antibodies, are being investigated for their potential ability to augment Rituximab efficacy. Here, we compare the anti-tumor effect of [...] Read more.
The anti-CD20 mAb Rituximab has revolutionized lymphoma therapy, in spite of a number of unresponsive or relapsing patients. Immunotoxins, consisting of toxins coupled to antibodies, are being investigated for their potential ability to augment Rituximab efficacy. Here, we compare the anti-tumor effect of high- and low-molecular-weight Rituximab/saporin-S6 immunotoxins, named HMW-IT and LMW-IT, respectively. Saporin-S6 is a potent and stable plant enzyme belonging to ribosome-inactivating proteins that causes protein synthesis arrest and consequent cell death. Saporin-S6 was conjugated to Rituximab through an artificial disulfide bond. The inhibitory activity of HMW-IT and LMW-IT was evaluated on cell-free protein synthesis and in two CD20+ lymphoma cell lines, Raji and D430B. Two different conjugates were separated on the basis of their molecular weight and further characterized. Both HMW-IT (dimeric) and LMW-IT (monomeric) maintained a high level of enzymatic activity in a cell-free system. HMW-IT, thanks to a higher toxin payload and more efficient antigen capping, showed stronger in vitro anti-tumor efficacy than LMW-IT against lymphoma cells. Dimeric HMW-IT can be used for lymphoma therapy at least for ex vivo treatments. The possibility of using HMW-IT augments the yield in immunotoxin preparation and allows the targeting of antigens with low internalization rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Immunotoxins 2016)
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Article
Identification of Pathogenic Fusarium spp. Causing Maize Ear Rot and Potential Mycotoxin Production in China
by Canxing Duan, Zihui Qin, Zhihuan Yang, Weixi Li, Suli Sun, Zhendong Zhu and Xiaoming Wang
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060186 - 21 Jun 2016
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 7451
Abstract
Ear rot is a serious disease that affects maize yield and grain quality worldwide. The mycotoxins are often hazardous to humans and livestock. In samples collected in China between 2009 and 2014, Fusarium verticillioides and F. graminearum species complex were the dominant fungi [...] Read more.
Ear rot is a serious disease that affects maize yield and grain quality worldwide. The mycotoxins are often hazardous to humans and livestock. In samples collected in China between 2009 and 2014, Fusarium verticillioides and F. graminearum species complex were the dominant fungi causing ear rot. According to the TEF-1α gene sequence, F. graminearum species complex in China included three independent species: F. graminearum, F. meridionale, and F. boothii. The key gene FUM1 responsible for the biosynthesis of fumonisin was detected in all 82 F. verticillioides isolates. Among these, 57 isolates mainly produced fumonisin B1, ranging from 2.52 to 18,416.44 µg/g for each gram of dry hyphal weight, in vitro. Three different toxigenic chemotypes were detected among 78 F. graminearum species complex: 15-ADON, NIV and 15-ADON+NIV. Sixty and 16 isolates represented the 15-ADON and NIV chemotypes, respectively; two isolates carried both 15-ADON and NIV-producing segments. All the isolates carrying NIV-specific segment were F. meridionale. The in vitro production of 15-ADON, 3-ADON, DON, and ZEN varied from 5.43 to 81,539.49; 6.04 to 19,590.61; 13.35 to 19,795.33; and 1.77 to 430.24 µg/g of dry hyphal weight, respectively. Altogether, our present data demonstrate potential main mycotoxin production of dominant pathogenic Fusarium in China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Fusarium Toxins – Relevance for Human and Animal Health)
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1285 KiB  
Review
VacA’s Induction of VacA-Containing Vacuoles (VCVs) and Their Immunomodulatory Activities on Human T Cells
by Ciara Utsch and Rainer Haas
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060190 - 18 Jun 2016
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7279
Abstract
Vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) is a secreted pore-forming toxin and one of the major virulence factors of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which actively supports the persistence and survival of the bacteria in the special ecological niche of the human stomach. H. [...] Read more.
Vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) is a secreted pore-forming toxin and one of the major virulence factors of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which actively supports the persistence and survival of the bacteria in the special ecological niche of the human stomach. H. pylori genomes harbor different allelic forms of the vacA gene, which translate into functionally distinct VacA toxin types. VacA internalizes into various cell types via membrane or specific receptor interactions finally forming acidic endocytic VacA-containing vacuoles (VCVs). In this review, we focus on different characteristics of VacA, its interaction with host cells, the formation and protein content of VCVs and their intracellular transport into human T cells, which finally leads to the immunosuppressive phenotype of VacA. Immunomodulatory activities of VacA on human T cells are discussed with a focus on T-cell proliferation and calcium signaling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vacuolating Toxin)
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Article
The Sialidase NanS Enhances Non-TcsL Mediated Cytotoxicity of Clostridium sordellii
by Milena M. Awad, Julie Singleton and Dena Lyras
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060189 - 17 Jun 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4743
Abstract
The clostridia produce an arsenal of toxins to facilitate their survival within the host environment. TcsL is one of two major toxins produced by Clostridium sordellii, a human and animal pathogen, and is essential for disease pathogenesis of this bacterium. C. sordellii [...] Read more.
The clostridia produce an arsenal of toxins to facilitate their survival within the host environment. TcsL is one of two major toxins produced by Clostridium sordellii, a human and animal pathogen, and is essential for disease pathogenesis of this bacterium. C. sordellii produces many other toxins, but the role that they play in disease is not known, although previous work has suggested that the sialidase enzyme NanS may be involved in the characteristic leukemoid reaction that occurs during severe disease. In this study we investigated the role of NanS in C. sordellii disease pathogenesis. We constructed a nanS mutant and showed that NanS is the only sialidase produced from C. sordellii strain ATCC9714 since sialidase activity could not be detected from the nanS mutant. Complementation with the wild-type gene restored sialidase production to the nanS mutant strain. Cytotoxicity assays using sialidase-enriched culture supernatants applied to gut (Caco2), vaginal (VK2), and cervical cell lines (End1/E6E7 and Ect1/E6E7) showed that NanS was not cytotoxic to these cells. However, the cytotoxic capacity of a toxin-enriched supernatant to the vaginal and cervical cell lines was substantially enhanced in the presence of NanS. TcsL was not the mediator of the observed cytotoxicity since supernatants harvested from a TcsL-deficient strain displayed similar cytotoxicity levels to TcsL-containing supernatants. This study suggests that NanS works synergistically with an unknown toxin or toxins to exacerbate C. sordellii-mediated tissue damage in the host. Full article
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Article
Is Hybridization a Source of Adaptive Venom Variation in Rattlesnakes? A Test, Using a Crotalus scutulatus × viridis Hybrid Zone in Southwestern New Mexico
by Giulia Zancolli, Timothy G. Baker, Axel Barlow, Rebecca K. Bradley, Juan J. Calvete, Kimberley C. Carter, Kaylah De Jager, John Benjamin Owens, Jenny Forrester Price, Libia Sanz, Amy Scholes-Higham, Liam Shier, Liam Wood, Catharine E. Wüster and Wolfgang Wüster
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060188 - 16 Jun 2016
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10410
Abstract
Venomous snakes often display extensive variation in venom composition both between and within species. However, the mechanisms underlying the distribution of different toxins and venom types among populations and taxa remain insufficiently known. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus, Sistrurus) display extreme inter- and [...] Read more.
Venomous snakes often display extensive variation in venom composition both between and within species. However, the mechanisms underlying the distribution of different toxins and venom types among populations and taxa remain insufficiently known. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus, Sistrurus) display extreme inter- and intraspecific variation in venom composition, centered particularly on the presence or absence of presynaptically neurotoxic phospholipases A2 such as Mojave toxin (MTX). Interspecific hybridization has been invoked as a mechanism to explain the distribution of these toxins across rattlesnakes, with the implicit assumption that they are adaptively advantageous. Here, we test the potential of adaptive hybridization as a mechanism for venom evolution by assessing the distribution of genes encoding the acidic and basic subunits of Mojave toxin across a hybrid zone between MTX-positive Crotalus scutulatus and MTX-negative C. viridis in southwestern New Mexico, USA. Analyses of morphology, mitochondrial and single copy-nuclear genes document extensive admixture within a narrow hybrid zone. The genes encoding the two MTX subunits are strictly linked, and found in most hybrids and backcrossed individuals, but not in C. viridis away from the hybrid zone. Presence of the genes is invariably associated with presence of the corresponding toxin in the venom. We conclude that introgression of highly lethal neurotoxins through hybridization is not necessarily favored by natural selection in rattlesnakes, and that even extensive hybridization may not lead to introgression of these genes into another species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Evolution of Venom Systems)
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Review
The Immunomodulator VacA Promotes Immune Tolerance and Persistent Helicobacter pylori Infection through Its Activities on T-Cells and Antigen-Presenting Cells
by Aleksandra Djekic and Anne Müller
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060187 - 16 Jun 2016
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6290
Abstract
VacA is a pore-forming toxin that has long been known to induce vacuolization in gastric epithelial cells and to be linked to gastric disorders caused by H. pylori infection. Its role as a major colonization and persistence determinant of H. pylori is less [...] Read more.
VacA is a pore-forming toxin that has long been known to induce vacuolization in gastric epithelial cells and to be linked to gastric disorders caused by H. pylori infection. Its role as a major colonization and persistence determinant of H. pylori is less well-understood. The purpose of this review is to discuss the various target cell types of VacA and its mechanism of action; specifically, we focus on the evidence showing that VacA targets myeloid cells and T-cells to directly and indirectly prevent H. pylori-specific T-cell responses and immune control of the infection. In particular, the ability of VacA-proficient H. pylori to skew T-cell responses towards regulatory T-cells and the effects of Tregs on H. pylori chronicity are highlighted. The by-stander effects of VacA-driven immunomodulation on extragastric diseases are discussed as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vacuolating Toxin)
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Article
Transcytosis, Antitumor Activity and Toxicity of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin C2 as an Oral Administration Protein Drug
by Wenbin Zhao, Yangyang Li, Wenhui Liu, Ding Ding, Yingchun Xu, Liqiang Pan and Shuqing Chen
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060185 - 16 Jun 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5076
Abstract
Staphylococcal enterotoxin C2 (SEC2) is a classical superantigen (SAg), which can tremendously activate T lymphocytes at very low dosage, thus exerting its powerful antitumor activity. As an intravenous protein drug and a bacterial toxin, SEC2 has some limitations including poor patient compliance and [...] Read more.
Staphylococcal enterotoxin C2 (SEC2) is a classical superantigen (SAg), which can tremendously activate T lymphocytes at very low dosage, thus exerting its powerful antitumor activity. As an intravenous protein drug and a bacterial toxin, SEC2 has some limitations including poor patient compliance and toxic side effects. In this research, we devoted our attention to studying the antitumor activity and toxicity of SEC2 as a potential oral administration protein drug. We proved that His-tagged SEC2 (SEC2-His) could undergo facilitated transcytosis on human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells and SEC2-His was detected in the blood of rats after oral administration. Furthermore, oral SEC2-His caused massive cytokine release and immune cell enrichment around tumor tissue, leading to inhibition of tumor growth in vivo. Meanwhile, although SEC2-His was dosed up to 32 mg/kg in mice, no significant toxicity was observed. These data showed that SEC2 can cross the intestinal epithelium in an immunologically integral form, maintaining antitumor activity but with reduced systemic toxicity. Therefore, these results may have implications for developing SEC2 as an oral administration protein drug. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Staphylococcus aureus Toxins)
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Communication
Anti-Human Endoglin (hCD105) Immunotoxin—Containing Recombinant Single Chain Ribosome-Inactivating Protein Musarmin 1
by Begoña Barriuso, Pilar Antolín, F. Javier Arias, Alessandra Girotti, Pilar Jiménez, Manuel Cordoba-Diaz, Damián Cordoba-Diaz and Tomás Girbés
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060184 - 10 Jun 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4981
Abstract
Endoglin (CD105) is an accessory component of the TGF-β receptor complex, which is expressed in a number of tissues and over-expressed in the endothelial cells of tumor neovasculature. Targeting endoglin with immunotoxins containing type 2 ribosome-inactivating proteins has proved an effective tool to [...] Read more.
Endoglin (CD105) is an accessory component of the TGF-β receptor complex, which is expressed in a number of tissues and over-expressed in the endothelial cells of tumor neovasculature. Targeting endoglin with immunotoxins containing type 2 ribosome-inactivating proteins has proved an effective tool to reduce blood supply to B16 mice tumor xenografts. We prepared anti-endoglin immunotoxin (IT)—containing recombinant musarmin 1 (single chain ribosome-inactivating proteins) linked to the mouse anti-human CD105 44G4 mouse monoclonal antibody via N-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio) propionate (SPDP). The immunotoxin specifically killed L929 fibroblast mouse cells transfected with the short form of human endoglin with IC50 values in the range of 5 × 10−10 to 10−9 M. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Immunotoxins 2016)
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Review
Processing of Snake Venom Metalloproteinases: Generation of Toxin Diversity and Enzyme Inactivation
by Ana M. Moura-da-Silva, Michelle T. Almeida, José A. Portes-Junior, Carolina A. Nicolau, Francisco Gomes-Neto and Richard H. Valente
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060183 - 09 Jun 2016
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7762
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are abundant in the venoms of vipers and rattlesnakes, playing important roles for the snake adaptation to different environments, and are related to most of the pathological effects of these venoms in human victims. The effectiveness of SVMPs is [...] Read more.
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are abundant in the venoms of vipers and rattlesnakes, playing important roles for the snake adaptation to different environments, and are related to most of the pathological effects of these venoms in human victims. The effectiveness of SVMPs is greatly due to their functional diversity, targeting important physiological proteins or receptors in different tissues and in the coagulation system. Functional diversity is often related to the genetic diversification of the snake venom. In this review, we discuss some published evidence that posit that processing and post-translational modifications are great contributors for the generation of functional diversity and for maintaining latency or inactivation of enzymes belonging to this relevant family of venom toxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snake Venom Metalloproteinases)
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556 KiB  
Review
Relationship between vacA Types and Development of Gastroduodenal Diseases
by Tran Thi Huyen Trang, Tran Thanh Binh and Yoshio Yamaoka
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060182 - 09 Jun 2016
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6602
Abstract
The Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA) is a secreted pore-forming toxin and a major virulence factor in the pathogenesis of H. pylori infection. While VacA is present in almost all strains, only some forms are toxigenic and pathogenic. While vacA and its genotypes [...] Read more.
The Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA) is a secreted pore-forming toxin and a major virulence factor in the pathogenesis of H. pylori infection. While VacA is present in almost all strains, only some forms are toxigenic and pathogenic. While vacA and its genotypes are considered as markers of H. pylori-related diseases or disorders, the pathophysiological mechanisms of VacA and its genotypes remain controversial. This review outlines key findings of publications regarding vacA with emphasis on the relationship between vacA genotypes and the development of human disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vacuolating Toxin)
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Article
Evolution of the SpoIISABC Toxin-Antitoxin-Antitoxin System in Bacilli
by Marek Gabriško and Imrich Barák
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060180 - 09 Jun 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4240
Abstract
Programmed cell death in bacteria is generally associated with two-component toxin-antitoxin systems. The SpoIISABC system, originally identified in Bacillus subtilis, consists of three components: a SpoIISA toxin and the SpoIISB and SpoIISC antitoxins. SpoIISA is a membrane-bound protein, while SpoIISB and SpoIISC [...] Read more.
Programmed cell death in bacteria is generally associated with two-component toxin-antitoxin systems. The SpoIISABC system, originally identified in Bacillus subtilis, consists of three components: a SpoIISA toxin and the SpoIISB and SpoIISC antitoxins. SpoIISA is a membrane-bound protein, while SpoIISB and SpoIISC are small cytosolic antitoxins, which are able to bind SpoIISA and neutralize its toxicity. In the presented bioinformatics analysis, a taxonomic distribution of the genes of the SpoIISABC system is investigated; their conserved regions and residues are identified; and their phylogenetic relationships are inferred. The SpoIISABC system is part of the core genome in members of the Bacillus genus of the Firmicutes phylum. Its presence in some non-bacillus species is likely the result of horizontal gene transfer. The SpoIISB and SpoIISC antitoxins originated by gene duplications, which occurred independently in the B. subtilis and B. cereus lineages. In the B. cereus lineage, the SpoIIS module is present in two different architectures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxin-Antitoxin System in Bacteria)
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874 KiB  
Article
The Acaricidal Activity of Venom from the Jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai against the Carmine Spider Mite Tetranychus cinnabarinus
by Huahua Yu, Yang Yue, Xiangli Dong, Rongfeng Li and Pengcheng Li
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060179 - 09 Jun 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5688
Abstract
The carmine spider mite Tetranychus cinnabarinus (T. cinnabarinus) is a common polyphagous pest that attacks crops, vegetables, flowers, and so on. It is necessary to find lead compounds for developing novel, powerful, and environmentally-friendly acaricides as an alternative approach to controlling [...] Read more.
The carmine spider mite Tetranychus cinnabarinus (T. cinnabarinus) is a common polyphagous pest that attacks crops, vegetables, flowers, and so on. It is necessary to find lead compounds for developing novel, powerful, and environmentally-friendly acaricides as an alternative approach to controlling the carmine spider mite because of the serious resistance and residual agrochemicals in the environment. In addition, the study on the acaricidal activities of marine bioactive substances is comparatively deficient. In the present study, the acaricidal activity of venom (NnFV) from the jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai against the carmine spider mite T. cinnabarinus was determined for the first time. The venom had contact toxicity, and the 24-h LC50-value was 29.1 μg/mL. The mite body wall was affected by the venom, with the mite body having no luster and being seriously shrunken after 24 h. T. cinnabarinus was a potential target pest of NnFV, which had potential as a type of natural bioacaricide. The repellent activity and systemic toxicity of the venom against T. cinnabarinus were also studied. However, NnFV had no repellent activity and systemic toxicity against T. cinnabarinus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine and Freshwater Toxins)
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Review
Use of VacA as a Vaccine Antigen
by Mati Moyat and Dominique Velin
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060181 - 08 Jun 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4201
Abstract
One of the major toxins secreted by H. pylori is the Vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) named after its ability to induce the formation of “vacuole”-like membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm of gastric cells. VacA has been associated with the disruption of mitochondrial functions, [...] Read more.
One of the major toxins secreted by H. pylori is the Vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) named after its ability to induce the formation of “vacuole”-like membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm of gastric cells. VacA has been associated with the disruption of mitochondrial functions, stimulation of apoptosis, blockade of T cell proliferation and promotion of regulatory T cells, thereby making it a promising vaccine target. Immunity to bacterial virulence factors is well known to protect humans against bacterial infections; hence, detoxified VacA has been evaluated as a vaccine antigen. Our short review summarizes the pre-clinical and clinical data that have been published on the use of VacA in the development of the H. pylori vaccine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vacuolating Toxin)
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Article
Venomic Analysis of the Poorly Studied Desert Coral Snake, Micrurus tschudii tschudii, Supports the 3FTx/PLA2 Dichotomy across Micrurus Venoms
by Libia Sanz, Davinia Pla, Alicia Pérez, Yania Rodríguez, Alfonso Zavaleta, Maria Salas, Bruno Lomonte and Juan J. Calvete
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060178 - 07 Jun 2016
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6502
Abstract
The venom proteome of the poorly studied desert coral snake Micrurus tschudii tschudii was unveiled using a venomic approach, which identified ≥38 proteins belonging to only four snake venom protein families. The three-finger toxins (3FTxs) constitute, both in number of isoforms (~30) and [...] Read more.
The venom proteome of the poorly studied desert coral snake Micrurus tschudii tschudii was unveiled using a venomic approach, which identified ≥38 proteins belonging to only four snake venom protein families. The three-finger toxins (3FTxs) constitute, both in number of isoforms (~30) and total abundance (93.6% of the venom proteome), the major protein family of the desert coral snake venom. Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s; seven isoforms, 4.1% of the venom proteome), 1–3 Kunitz-type proteins (1.6%), and 1–2 l-amino acid oxidases (LAO, 0.7%) complete the toxin arsenal of M. t. tschudii. Our results add to the growing evidence that the occurrence of two divergent venom phenotypes, i.e., 3FTx- and PLA2-predominant venom proteomes, may constitute a general trend across the cladogenesis of Micrurus. The occurrence of a similar pattern of venom phenotypic variability among true sea snake (Hydrophiinae) venoms suggests that the 3FTx/PLA2 dichotomy may be widely distributed among Elapidae venoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venomics, Venom Proteomics and Venom Transcriptomics)
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Article
Inhibitory Activities of Alkyl Syringates and Related Compounds on Aflatoxin Production
by Tomohiro Furukawa, Kurin Iimura, Taichi Kimura, Toshiyoshi Yamamoto and Shohei Sakuda
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060177 - 07 Jun 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4644
Abstract
Inhibitors of aflatoxin production of aflatoxigenic fungi are useful for preventing aflatoxin contamination in crops. As methyl syringate weakly inhibits aflatoxin production, aflatoxin production inhibitory activities of additional alkyl syringates with alkyl chains from ethyl to octyl were examined. Inhibitory activity toward aflatoxin [...] Read more.
Inhibitors of aflatoxin production of aflatoxigenic fungi are useful for preventing aflatoxin contamination in crops. As methyl syringate weakly inhibits aflatoxin production, aflatoxin production inhibitory activities of additional alkyl syringates with alkyl chains from ethyl to octyl were examined. Inhibitory activity toward aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus became stronger as the length of the alkyl chains on the esters became longer. Pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, and octyl syringates showed strong activity at 0.05 mM. Heptyl and octyl parabens, and octyl gallate also inhibited aflatoxin production as strongly as octyl syringate. Alkyl parabens and alkyl gallates inhibit the complex II activity of the mitochondrial respiration chain; thus, whether alkyl syringates inhibit complex II activity was examined. Inhibitory activities of alkyl syringates toward complex II also became stronger as the length of the alkyl chains increased. The complex II inhibitory activity of octyl syringate was comparable to that of octyl paraben and octyl gallate. These results suggest that alkyl syringates, alkyl parabens, and alkyl gallates, including commonly used food additives, are useful for aflatoxin control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Aflatoxins)
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Review
Is qPCR a Reliable Indicator of Cyanotoxin Risk in Freshwater?
by Ana Beatriz F. Pacheco, Iame A. Guedes and Sandra M.F.O. Azevedo
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060172 - 07 Jun 2016
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7695
Abstract
The wide distribution of cyanobacteria in aquatic environments leads to the risk of water contamination by cyanotoxins, which generate environmental and public health issues. Measurements of cell densities or pigment contents allow both the early detection of cellular growth and bloom monitoring, but [...] Read more.
The wide distribution of cyanobacteria in aquatic environments leads to the risk of water contamination by cyanotoxins, which generate environmental and public health issues. Measurements of cell densities or pigment contents allow both the early detection of cellular growth and bloom monitoring, but these methods are not sufficiently accurate to predict actual cyanobacterial risk. To quantify cyanotoxins, analytical methods are considered the gold standards, but they are laborious, expensive, time-consuming and available in a limited number of laboratories. In cyanobacterial species with toxic potential, cyanotoxin production is restricted to some strains, and blooms can contain varying proportions of both toxic and non-toxic cells, which are morphologically indistinguishable. The sequencing of cyanobacterial genomes led to the description of gene clusters responsible for cyanotoxin production, which paved the way for the use of these genes as targets for PCR and then quantitative PCR (qPCR). Thus, the quantification of cyanotoxin genes appeared as a new method for estimating the potential toxicity of blooms. This raises a question concerning whether qPCR-based methods would be a reliable indicator of toxin concentration in the environment. Here, we review studies that report the parallel detection of microcystin genes and microcystin concentrations in natural populations and also a smaller number of studies dedicated to cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin. We discuss the possible issues associated with the contradictory findings reported to date, present methodological limitations and consider the use of qPCR as an indicator of cyanotoxin risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Marine and Freshwater Toxins)
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Article
Evaluation of the Impact of Mild Steaming and Heat Treatment on the Concentration of Okadaic Acid, Dinophysistoxin-2 and Dinophysistoxin-3 in Mussels
by Inés Rodríguez, Amparo Alfonso, Alvaro Antelo, Mercedes Alvarez and Luis M. Botana
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060175 - 06 Jun 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4052
Abstract
This study explores the effect of laboratory and industrial steaming on mussels with toxin concentrations above and below the legal limit. We used mild conditions for steaming, 100 °C for 5 min in industrial processing, and up to 20 min in small-scale laboratory [...] Read more.
This study explores the effect of laboratory and industrial steaming on mussels with toxin concentrations above and below the legal limit. We used mild conditions for steaming, 100 °C for 5 min in industrial processing, and up to 20 min in small-scale laboratory steaming. Also, we studied the effect of heat on the toxin concentration of mussels obtained from two different locations and the effect of heat on the levels of dinophysistoxins 3 (DTX3) in both the mussel matrix and in pure form (7-O-palmitoyl okadaic ester and 7-O-palmytoleyl okadaic ester). The results show that the loss of water due to steaming was very small with a maximum of 9.5%, that the toxin content remained unchanged with no concentration effect or increase in toxicity, and that dinophysistoxins 3 was hydrolyzed or degraded to a certain extent under heat treatment. The use of liquid-certified matrix showed a 55% decrease of dinophysistoxins 3 after 10 min steaming, and a 50% reduction in total toxicity after treatment with an autoclave (121 °C for 20 min). Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Marine and Freshwater Toxins)
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Article
Evaluation of the Toxicity and Toxicokinetics of Cereulide from an Emetic Bacillus cereus Strain of Milk Origin
by Yifang Cui, Yuan Liu, Xiaoye Liu, Xi Xia, Shuangyang Ding and Kui Zhu
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060156 - 06 Jun 2016
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6703
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is an opportunistic foodborne agent causing food poisoning and many infectious diseases. The heat-stable emetic toxin cereulide is one of the most prevalent toxins produced by pathogenic B. cereus, resulting in symptoms such as emesis and liver failure. In the [...] Read more.
Bacillus cereus is an opportunistic foodborne agent causing food poisoning and many infectious diseases. The heat-stable emetic toxin cereulide is one of the most prevalent toxins produced by pathogenic B. cereus, resulting in symptoms such as emesis and liver failure. In the present work, the toxicity and toxicokinetics of cereulide from an emetic B. cereus isolate (CAU45) of raw milk were evaluated. The production of cereulide was tested by a cytotoxicity test and enzyme immunoassay, and confirmed by the presence of the ces (cereulide synthetase) gene and the ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. All results showed that the amount and toxicity of cereulide produced by CAU45 was 7 to 15.3 folds higher than the reference emetic B. cereus DSMZ 4312. Cereulide in plasma was collected at different time points after a single intravenous injection to evaluate its toxicokinetics in rabbits. The maximum concentration of cereulide was achieved in 2.6 ± 3.4 h after administration, with the elimination half-life of 10.8 ± 9.1 h, which expands our understanding of the toxic effects of cereulide. Together, it suggests that urgent sanitary practices are needed to eliminate emetic toxins and emetic B. cereus in raw milk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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1338 KiB  
Article
AAU-Specific RNA Cleavage Mediated by MazF Toxin Endoribonuclease Conserved in Nitrosomonas europaea
by Tatsuki Miyamoto, Akiko Yokota, Satoshi Tsuneda and Naohiro Noda
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060174 - 04 Jun 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5309
Abstract
Nitrosomonas europaea carries numerous toxin-antitoxin systems. However, despite the abundant representation in its chromosome, studies have not surveyed the underlying molecular functions in detail, and their biological roles remain enigmatic. In the present study, we found that a chromosomally-encoded MazF family member, predicted [...] Read more.
Nitrosomonas europaea carries numerous toxin-antitoxin systems. However, despite the abundant representation in its chromosome, studies have not surveyed the underlying molecular functions in detail, and their biological roles remain enigmatic. In the present study, we found that a chromosomally-encoded MazF family member, predicted at the locus NE1181, is a functional toxin endoribonuclease, and constitutes a toxin-antitoxin system, together with its cognate antitoxin, MazE. Massive parallel sequencing provided strong evidence that this toxin endoribonuclease exhibits RNA cleavage activity, primarily against the AAU triplet. This sequence-specificity was supported by the results of fluorometric assays. Our results indicate that N. europaea alters the translation profile and regulates its growth using the MazF family of endoribonuclease under certain stressful conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxin-Antitoxin System in Bacteria)
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2673 KiB  
Review
An Overview of Helicobacter pylori VacA Toxin Biology
by Nora J. Foegeding, Rhonda R. Caston, Mark S. McClain, Melanie D. Ohi and Timothy L. Cover
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060173 - 03 Jun 2016
Cited by 138 | Viewed by 11963
Abstract
The VacA toxin secreted by Helicobacter pylori enhances the ability of the bacteria to colonize the stomach and contributes to the pathogenesis of gastric adenocarcinoma and peptic ulcer disease. The amino acid sequence and structure of VacA are unrelated to corresponding features of [...] Read more.
The VacA toxin secreted by Helicobacter pylori enhances the ability of the bacteria to colonize the stomach and contributes to the pathogenesis of gastric adenocarcinoma and peptic ulcer disease. The amino acid sequence and structure of VacA are unrelated to corresponding features of other known bacterial toxins. VacA is classified as a pore-forming toxin, and many of its effects on host cells are attributed to formation of channels in intracellular sites. The most extensively studied VacA activity is its capacity to stimulate vacuole formation, but the toxin has many additional effects on host cells. Multiple cell types are susceptible to VacA, including gastric epithelial cells, parietal cells, T cells, and other types of immune cells. This review focuses on the wide range of VacA actions that are detectable in vitro, as well as actions of VacA in vivo that are relevant for H. pylori colonization of the stomach and development of gastric disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vacuolating Toxin)
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Article
Effects of Zinc Chelators on Aflatoxin Production in Aspergillus parasiticus
by Josephine Wee, Devin M. Day and John E. Linz
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060171 - 02 Jun 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5874
Abstract
Zinc concentrations strongly influence aflatoxin accumulation in laboratory media and in food and feed crops. The presence of zinc stimulates aflatoxin production, and the absence of zinc impedes toxin production. Initial studies that suggested a link between zinc and aflatoxin biosynthesis were presented [...] Read more.
Zinc concentrations strongly influence aflatoxin accumulation in laboratory media and in food and feed crops. The presence of zinc stimulates aflatoxin production, and the absence of zinc impedes toxin production. Initial studies that suggested a link between zinc and aflatoxin biosynthesis were presented in the 1970s. In the present study, we utilized two zinc chelators, N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl) ethane-1,2-diamine (TPEN) and 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) to explore the effect of zinc limitation on aflatoxin synthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. TPEN but not DMPS decreased aflatoxin biosynthesis up to six-fold depending on whether A. parasiticus was grown on rich or minimal medium. Although we observed significant inhibition of aflatoxin production by TPEN, no detectable changes were observed in expression levels of the aflatoxin pathway gene ver-1 and the zinc binuclear cluster transcription factor, AflR. Treatment of growing A. parasiticus solid culture with a fluorescent zinc probe demonstrated an increase in intracellular zinc levels assessed by increases in fluorescent intensity of cultures treated with TPEN compared to controls. These data suggest that TPEN binds to cytoplasmic zinc therefore limiting fungal access to zinc. To investigate the efficacy of TPEN on food and feed crops, we found that TPEN effectively decreases aflatoxin accumulation on peanut medium but not in a sunflower seeds-derived medium. From an application perspective, these data provide the basis for biological differences that exist in the efficacy of different zinc chelators in various food and feed crops frequently contaminated by aflatoxin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Aflatoxins)
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2107 KiB  
Article
A Systematic Investigation into the Environmental Fate of Microcystins and The Potential Risk: Study in Lake Taihu
by Junmei Jia, Qiuwen Chen and Torben L. Lauridsen
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060170 - 02 Jun 2016
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5320
Abstract
A systematic investigation was conducted in Lake Taihu in autumn of 2013 and 2014, in order to understand the environmental fate of microcystins (MCs) and evaluate the health risk from MCs. Samples of water, algal cells, macrophytes, shrimps and fish were taken to [...] Read more.
A systematic investigation was conducted in Lake Taihu in autumn of 2013 and 2014, in order to understand the environmental fate of microcystins (MCs) and evaluate the health risk from MCs. Samples of water, algal cells, macrophytes, shrimps and fish were taken to detect MCs by HPLC-MS/MS after solid phase extraction. Widespread MC contamination in water, algal cells, macrophytes, shrimps and fish was found in Lake Taihu. The ubiquitous presence of MCs in water, algal cells and biota was found in 100% of samples. MC accumulation was in the order of primary producer > tertiary consumer > secondary consumer > primary consumer. The highest levels of MCs in macrophytes, shrimps and fish tissue were found in Potamogeton maackianus, Exopalaemon modestus, and Hyporhamphus intermedius, respectively. The MCs level in shrimps and the tissues of three fish species, Neosalanx tangkahkeii taihuensis, Coilia ectenes and silver carp, was closely linked to their dietary exposure. Ceratophyllum demersum L. was an ideal plant for introduction into lakes to protect against Microcystis blooms and MCs, due to its ability to absorb nutrients, accumulate large amounts of MCs and tolerate these toxins compared to other macrophytes. The average daily intakes (ADIs) of MCs for Exopalaemon modestus and three fish species, Coilia ectenes, Hyporhamphus intermedius and Carassius carassius, were all above the tolerable daily intakes (TDI) set by the World Health Organization (WHO), implying there existed potential threats to human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine and Freshwater Toxins)
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1944 KiB  
Article
Sequence Variability in Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Genes seb, sec, and sed
by Sophia Johler, Henna-Maria Sihto, Guerrino Macori and Roger Stephan
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060169 - 01 Jun 2016
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7043
Abstract
Ingestion of staphylococcal enterotoxins preformed by Staphylococcus aureus in food leads to staphylococcal food poisoning, the most prevalent foodborne intoxication worldwide. There are five major staphylococcal enterotoxins: SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SEE. While variants of these toxins have been described and were [...] Read more.
Ingestion of staphylococcal enterotoxins preformed by Staphylococcus aureus in food leads to staphylococcal food poisoning, the most prevalent foodborne intoxication worldwide. There are five major staphylococcal enterotoxins: SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, and SEE. While variants of these toxins have been described and were linked to specific hosts or levels or enterotoxin production, data on sequence variation is still limited. In this study, we aim to extend the knowledge on promoter and gene variants of the major enterotoxins SEB, SEC, and SED. To this end, we determined seb, sec, and sed promoter and gene sequences of a well-characterized set of enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus strains originating from foodborne outbreaks, human infections, human nasal colonization, rabbits, and cattle. New nucleotide sequence variants were detected for all three enterotoxins and a novel amino acid sequence variant of SED was detected in a strain associated with human nasal colonization. While the seb promoter and gene sequences exhibited a high degree of variability, the sec and sed promoter and gene were more conserved. Interestingly, a truncated variant of sed was detected in all tested sed harboring rabbit strains. The generated data represents a further step towards improved understanding of strain-specific differences in enterotoxin expression and host-specific variation in enterotoxin sequences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Staphylococcus aureus Toxins)
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5154 KiB  
Article
Molecular Characterization of Three Novel Phospholipase A2 Proteins from the Venom of Atheris chlorechis, Atheris nitschei and Atheris squamigera
by He Wang, Xiaole Chen, Mei Zhou, Lei Wang, Tianbao Chen and Chris Shaw
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060168 - 01 Jun 2016
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4964
Abstract
Secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) is known as a major component of snake venoms and displays higher-order catalytic hydrolysis functions as well as a wide range of pathological effects. Atheris is not a notoriously dangerous genus of snakes although there are [...] Read more.
Secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) is known as a major component of snake venoms and displays higher-order catalytic hydrolysis functions as well as a wide range of pathological effects. Atheris is not a notoriously dangerous genus of snakes although there are some reports of fatal cases after envenomation due to the effects of coagulation disturbances and hemorrhaging. Molecular characterization of Atheris venom enzymes is incomplete and there are only a few reports in the literature. Here, we report, for the first time, the cloning and characterization of three novel cDNAs encoding phospholipase A2 precursors (one each) from the venoms of the Western bush viper (Atheris chlorechis), the Great Lakes bush viper (Atheris nitschei) and the Variable bush viper (Atheris squamigera), using a “shotgun cloning” strategy. Open-reading frames of respective cloned cDNAs contained putative 16 residue signal peptides and mature proteins composed of 121 to 123 amino acid residues. Alignment of mature protein sequences revealed high degrees of structural conservation and identity with Group II venom PLA2 proteins from other taxa within the Viperidae. Reverse-phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) profiles of these three snake venoms were obtained separately and chromatographic fractions were assessed for phospholipase activity using an egg yolk suspension assay. The molecular masses of mature proteins were all identified as approximately 14 kDa. Mass spectrometric analyses of the fractionated oligopeptides arising from tryptic digestion of intact venom proteins, was performed for further structural characterization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)
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176 KiB  
Reply
Response to Peter Mantle. Comments on “Mycobiota and Mycotoxins in Traditional Medicinal Seeds from China. Toxins 2015, 7, 3858-3875”—Rigour in Attributing Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis within the Genus Penicillium Occurring on Natural Agricultural Produce
by Weiwei Gao
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060167 - 31 May 2016
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2639
Abstract
My colleagues and I appreciate the comments and constructive suggestions on our manuscript “Mycobiota and Mycotoxins in Traditional Medicinal Seeds from China”.[...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)
645 KiB  
Comment
Comments on “Mycobiota and Mycotoxins in Traditional Medicinal Seeds from China. Toxins 2015, 7, 3858-3875”— in Attributing Ochratoxin A Biosynthesis Within the Genus Penicillium Occurring on Natural Agricultural Produce
by Peter Mantle, Marina Venturini Copetti, Alan Buddie and Jens Frisvad
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060166 - 31 May 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6094
Abstract
The unusual attribution of trace amounts of ochratoxin A in some Chinese food commodities to Penicillium polonicum is questioned by European experience in searches for ochratoxinogenic food-spoilage Penicillia, where mistaken attribution is now known to have been due to cryptic Penicillium verrucosum contamination. [...] Read more.
The unusual attribution of trace amounts of ochratoxin A in some Chinese food commodities to Penicillium polonicum is questioned by European experience in searches for ochratoxinogenic food-spoilage Penicillia, where mistaken attribution is now known to have been due to cryptic Penicillium verrucosum contamination. Consequently, selection of single-spore isolates is recommended as pre-requisite for attributing mycotoxin biosynthetic potential to fungi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Understanding Mycotoxin Occurrence in Food and Feed Chains)
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479 KiB  
Article
Clinical Efficacy and Changes of Urothelial Dysfunction after Repeated Detrusor Botulinum Toxin A Injections in Chronic Spinal Cord-Injured Bladder
by Sheng-Fu Chen, Chia-Hwei Chang and Hann-Chorng Kuo
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060164 - 30 May 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4211
Abstract
Chornic spinal cord injury (SCI) will induce bladder urothelium dysfunction. This study investigated the therapeutic effects on urothelial dysfunction after repeated detrusor injections of onabotulinumtoxinA (BoNT-A) in SCI patients with neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO). Twenty chronic suprasacral SCI patients with NDO were enrolled. [...] Read more.
Chornic spinal cord injury (SCI) will induce bladder urothelium dysfunction. This study investigated the therapeutic effects on urothelial dysfunction after repeated detrusor injections of onabotulinumtoxinA (BoNT-A) in SCI patients with neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO). Twenty chronic suprasacral SCI patients with NDO were enrolled. The patients received 300 U BoNT-A injection into the detrusor every six months. The urothelium was assessed by cystoscopic biopsy at baseline and six months after each BoNT-A treatment. Immunofluorescence staining for urothelial dysfunction, including E-cadherin, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), tryptase for mast cell activity, and urothelial apoptosis were investigated. The outcome of urothelial dysfunction parameters after BoNT-A injection were compared between baseline and six months after each treatment. Repeated 300 U BoNT-A injections showed a sustained decrease of detrusor pressure compared with baseline. After three repeated BoNT-A detrusor injections, significantly greater distributions of E-cadherin (p = 0.042) and ZO-1 (p = 0.003) expressions, but no significant changes, of urothelial apoptosis and mast cell activation were found after repeated BoNT-A therapy. Urothelial dysfunction, such as adhesive and junction protein concentrations in SCI patients’ bladders, recovered after three repeated cycles of BoNT-A treatment. The therapeutic effects sustained. However, urothelial inflammation and apoptosis after SCI were not significantly improved after three repeated BoNT-A injections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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1177 KiB  
Review
CD133, Selectively Targeting the Root of Cancer
by Jörg U. Schmohl and Daniel A. Vallera
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060165 - 28 May 2016
Cited by 71 | Viewed by 9947
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSC) are capable of promoting tumor initiation and self-renewal, two important hallmarks of carcinoma formation. This population comprises a small percentage of the tumor mass and is highly resistant to chemotherapy, causing the most difficult problem in the field of [...] Read more.
Cancer stem cells (CSC) are capable of promoting tumor initiation and self-renewal, two important hallmarks of carcinoma formation. This population comprises a small percentage of the tumor mass and is highly resistant to chemotherapy, causing the most difficult problem in the field of cancer research, drug refractory relapse. Many CSC markers have been reported. One of the most promising and perhaps least ubiquitous is CD133, a membrane-bound pentaspan glycoprotein that is frequently expressed on CSC. There is evidence that directly targeting CD133 with biological drugs might be the most effective way to eliminate CSC. We have investigated two entirely unrelated, but highly effective approaches for selectively targeting CD133. The first involves using a special anti-CD133 single chain variable fragment (scFv) to deliver a catalytic toxin. The second utilizes this same scFv to deliver components of the immune system. In this review, we discuss the development and current status of these CD133 associated biological agents. Together, they show exceptional promise by specific and efficient CSC elimination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Immunotoxins 2016)
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Article
Effects of OnabotulintoxinA on Habituation of Laser Evoked Responses in Chronic Migraine
by Marina De Tommaso, Marianna Delussi, Katia Ricci, Anna Montemurno, Irene Carbone and Eleonora Vecchio
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060163 - 25 May 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4959
Abstract
Onabotulintoxin A (BontA) is an efficacious preventive treatment for chronic migraine, though the specific mechanism of action is still under discussion. The study aims: (1) To evaluate pain processing modifications in chronic migraine patients (CM) under single BontA administration in pericranial muscles, by [...] Read more.
Onabotulintoxin A (BontA) is an efficacious preventive treatment for chronic migraine, though the specific mechanism of action is still under discussion. The study aims: (1) To evaluate pain processing modifications in chronic migraine patients (CM) under single BontA administration in pericranial muscles, by means of CO2 Laser Evoked Potentials (LEPs) obtained by the stimulation of the skin over the right frontal and trapezius injection sites and hand dorsum, in a double blind placebo controlled crossover design. (2) To correlate main LEPs findings with clinical outcome after one year of BontA treatment. Twenty refractory CM patients were included in the analysis. The LEPs were recorded in basal conditions and seven days after BontA (PREEMPT protocol) and saline solution injection. The N1, N2 and P2 amplitude and latencies and N2P2 habituation index were evaluated and correlated with the percent change of headache frequency after one year of toxin treatment. After seven days of BontA treatment, a normalization of the trigeminal habituation index was observed, which was correlated with the clinical outcome after one year of BontA therapy. Patients displaying trigeminal LEPs facilitation at T0 time showed a more efficient therapeutic outcome. Neurotoxin may exert a modulating effect on trigeminal nociception, normalizing central neurotransmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Botulinum Toxins on Human Pain)
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Article
Occurrence of 26 Mycotoxins in the Grain of Cereals Cultivated in Poland
by Marcin Bryła, Agnieszka Waśkiewicz, Grażyna Podolska, Krystyna Szymczyk, Renata Jędrzejczak, Krzysztof Damaziak and Alicja Sułek
Toxins 2016, 8(6), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8060160 - 25 May 2016
Cited by 105 | Viewed by 8465
Abstract
The levels of 26 mycotoxins were determined in 147 samples of the grain of cereals cultivated in five regions of Poland during the 2014 growing season. The HPLC-HRMS (time-of-flight) analytical technique was used. An analytical procedure to simultaneously determine 26 mycotoxins in grain [...] Read more.
The levels of 26 mycotoxins were determined in 147 samples of the grain of cereals cultivated in five regions of Poland during the 2014 growing season. The HPLC-HRMS (time-of-flight) analytical technique was used. An analytical procedure to simultaneously determine 26 mycotoxins in grain was developed, tested and verified. Samples from eastern and southern Poland were more contaminated with mycotoxins than the samples from northern and western Poland. Toxins produced by Fusarium fungi were the main contaminants found. Some deoxynivalenol (DON) was found in 100% of the tested samples of wheat (Osiny, Borusowa, Werbkowice), triticale, winter barley and oats, while the maximum permissible DON level (as defined in the EU Commission Regulation No. 1881/2006) was exceeded in 10 samples. Zearalenone (ZEN), DON metabolites and enniatins were also commonly found. The presence of mycotoxins in grain reflected the prevailing weather conditions during the plant flowering/earing stages, which were favorable for the development of blight. Among all investigated wheat genotypes, cv. Fidelius was the least contaminated, while Bamberka, Forkida and Kampana were the most contaminated. However, the single-factor ANOVA analysis of variance did not reveal (at a statistical significance level α = 0.05) any differences between levels of mycotoxins in individual genotypes. Triticale was the most contaminated grain among all of the tested varieties. ZEN, DON and the sum of 3-acetyldexynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3- and 15-ADON) were found in 100% of the tested triticale samples at concentrations within the 4–86, 196–1326 and 36–374 µg·kg−1 range, respectively. Of particular concern was the fact that some “emerging mycotoxins” (enniatins) (in addition to commonly-known and legally-regulated mycotoxins) were also found in the tested triticale samples (enniatin B (Enn-B), enniatin B1 (Enn-B1), enniatin A-1 (Enn-A1), 100% of samples, and enniatin A (Enn-A), 70% of samples). Depending on the toxin, they were found at levels between 8 and 3328 µg·kg−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Understanding Mycotoxin Occurrence in Food and Feed Chains)
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